The island, which is mentioned by Homer, was considered by the Greeks the birthplace of Aphrodite, who, for that reason, was surnamed Cypris (see word).
An imaginary person created by Odysseus (Od. 17.443).
Father of Dmetor, king of Cyprus. (Od. 17.443).
A surname of Aphrodite (Il. 5.330, 422, 458 & 883).
A terrible monster, whose sight provoked horror (Il. 8.349, 11.36).
Pugmalion. A king of Cyprus and father of Metharme. He is said to have fallen in love with the ivory image of a maiden which he himself had made, and therefore to have prayed to Aphrodite to breathe life into it. When the request was granted, Pygmalion married the maiden, and became by her the father of Paphus.
A maiden of Cyprus, treated her lover Iphis with such haughtiness that he hanged himself at her door. She looked with such indifference at the funeral of the youth that Aphrodite changed her into a stone statue.
Harry Thurston Peck, The Perseus Project, August 2002
Following WebPage with hyperlinks.
The most beautiful of young men was the son of king Cinyras of Cyprus and his
daughter Myrrha. The gods turned Myrrha into a tree, and out of its trunk Adonis
was born. Because of the fact that he was the result of incest, he was hidden
in the underworld and looked after by Persephone.
When Aphrodite saw him she fell desperately in love, and when he was
killed while hunting by a wild boar, she pleaded with Zeus to bring him back to
life. Zeus agreed to get the young man back, but he had to stay in the underworld
during winter and be with Aphrodite in summer, thus making the vegetation die
in winter and blossom in summer.
The cult of Adonis was the first important cult in ancient Greece.
It has been suggested that Adonis was a semitic god, since his name seems to be
a grecian for of adon - the lord. The myth also resembles the Babylonian story
of the god Tammuz' death: here, it is Ishtar who laments him and brings him back
to the world.
Especially the ancient Greek women would worhip Adonis, and womens'
laments were sometimes called Adoniscries. The so-called Adonisgardens were pots
with flower seeds in them surrounding a statue of the god. In summer the flowers
would grow and in winter wither, symbolizing the myth above.This makes Adonis
a god of vegetation as well.
In spring there would be Adonis' festivals where wild celebrations
of joy would take place, and in autumn there would be mourning processions.
This text is cited Sept 2003 from the In2Greece URL below.
(more about Adonis at Ancient Phoenice )
(Graiai)."The old women," daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, and three in number-- Pephredo, Enyo, and Dino, also called Phorcydes. They had gray hair from their birth, and only one tooth and one eye in common, which they borrowed from each other when they needed them.
Graeae, (Graiai), that is, " the old women", were daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. They had grey hair from their birth. Hesiod (Theog. 270, &c.) mentions only two Graeae, viz. Pephredo and Enyo; Apollodorus (ii. 4.2) adds Deino as a third, and Aeschylus (Prom. 819) also speaks of three Graeae. The Scholiast on Aeschylus (Prom. 793) describes the Graeae, or Phorcides, as he calls them, as having the figure of swans, and he says that the three sisters had only one tooth and one eye in common, which they borrowed from one another when they wanted them. It is conmmonly believed that the Graeae, like other members of the family of Phorcys, were marine divinities, and personifications of the white foam seen on the waves of the sea.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Nov 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Ιnhabited by Telchinians, kings of Cyprus descended from Teucer, Phrasius, a seer from, Cinyras in, Pygmalion, king of, Alexander (Paris) tarries in, Greeks settle in, Agapenor settles in, Phidippus settles in, Demophon settles in, worship of Aphrodite, "Linus" song there, Cyprus subdued by Amasis, under Persians, Cyprian revolt and its suppression, Cyprians in Xerxes' fleet, disparaged by Artemisia, by Mardonius, "Cyprian poems," expedition of Cimon to, Athenian galleys escape to Cyprus after battle of Aegospotami, sea-fights off, conquered by Ptolemy, Ptolemy Philometor and his brother sent to.
He was the first conqueror of Cyprus, which he made tributary to himself.
These are their tribes: some are from Salamis and Athens, some from Arcadia, some from Cythnus, some from Phoenice, and some from Ethiopia, as the Cyprians themselves say.
Cyprus, an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, at the entrance of the Gulf of
Alexandretta. It was originally inhabited by Phoenicians and Greeks, and was famous
for its temples of Aphrodite. Though long autonomous, in the sixth century B.C.
dominion over it was disputed by the Egyptians and the Persians, the latter ruling
it till the invasion of Alexander the Great. From the Ptolemies of Egypt it passed
to the Romans (59 B.C.). Despite Moslem invasions from the seventh to the tenth
century, it remained a part of the Eastern Empire until the end of the twelfth.
ln 1191 it was conquered by Richard the Lion-Hearted, who gave it to Guy de Lusignan,
King of Jerusalem; in 1373 it fell to the Genoese, in 1489 to the Venetians. Finally,
in 1571, it became Moslem territory under Sultan Selim II. In 1878 it was occupied
by England and is now administered by an English high commissioner, assisted by
a board of four English members (Statesman's Year Book, London, 1908). The island
is hilly, with few rivers, and the climate is hot. Its once famous cities have
perished; the chief towns are now Larnaca (the best port), Nicosia, and Limasol.
Its area is 153,584 square miles. The population in 1901 was 237,000 (51,000 Mussulmans,
1100 Maronites, 850 Latins, 300 Armenians, a few Protestants and Jews, and the
rest Greeks). It produces dates, carobs, oranges and other fruits, oil, wine,
and corn. It has also sponge fisheries. Gypsum is mined there and copper mines
were worked in ancient times. Christianity was successfully preached in Cyprus
by St. Paul, St. Barnabas (a native of the island), and St. John Mark. At Paphos
the magician Elymas was blinded and the Proconsul Sergius Paulus was converted
(Acts, xi, xiii, xv). The Byzantine "Synaxaria" mention many saints, bishops,
and martyrs of this early period, e.g. St. Lazarus, St. Heraclides, St. Nicanor
(one of the first seven deacons), and others. In the fourth century we find two
illustrious names, that of St. Spiridion, the shepherd Bishop of Trimithus, present
at the Council of Nicaea in 325 with two other Cypriot bishops, whose relics were
removed to Corfu in 1460, and that of St. Epiphanius (d. 403), Bishop of Salamis,
the zealous adversary of all heresies and author of many valuable theological
works. The Bishop of Salamis (later Constantia) was then metropolitan of the whole
island, but was himself subject to the Patriarch of Antioch. During the Arian
quarrels and the Eustathian schism, the Cypriote Church began to claim its independence.
Pope Innocent I stood out for the rights of the Antiochene patriarch, Alexander
I. However, it was not long before the Council of Ephesus (431) in its seventh
session acknowledged the ecclesiastical independence of Cyprus: the cause was
gained by the metropolitan, Rheginus, who was present at Ephesus with three of
his suffragans. In 488 Peter the Dyer (Petrus Fullo), the famous Monophysite patriarch,
made an effort to recover the ancient Antiochene jurisdiction over the island.
During the conflict, however, the Cypriote metropolitan, Anthimus, claimed to
have learned by a revelation that the site of the sepulchre of St. Barnabas was
quite near his own city of Salamis; he found there the body of the Apostle with
a copy of St. Matthew's Gospel, brought the relics to Constantinople, and presented
them to the Emperor Zeno. Acacius of Constantinople decided in favour of Cyprus
against Antioch, since which time the ecclesiastical independence (autocephalia)
of the island has no more been called in question, the archbishop, known as exarch,
ranking immediately after the five great patriarchs.
From the fifth to the twelfth century the following Archbishops of
Constantia (Salamis) are worthy of note: Acadius, biographer of St. Symeon Stylites
the Younger, and an uncompromising opponent of the Ecthesis of Heraclius; Sergius,
who condemned this document in a council and sent the pertinent decree to Pope
Theodore I, but became afterwards infected with the very error he had formerly
condemned; George, a defender of the holy images (icons); Constantine, who played
a conspicuous part in their defence at the Second Nicene Council (787); Nicholas
Muzalon, appointed Patriarch of Constantinople in 1147. Another remarkable prelate
is St. Demetrianus, Bishop of Chytraea (ninth and tenth century). After the conquest
of Cyprus by the Arabs, 632-647, the Christian population with its bishops emigrated
to the mainland. Justinian II built for them, near the Hellespont, a city which
he called Nea Justinianopolis; their archbishop enjoyed there the rights he had
in Cyprus, besides exercising jurisdiction over the surrounding country (Quinisext
Council, can. xxxix, 692). After the death of Justinian II the Cypriotes returned
to their island with their hierarchy. Under Nicephorus Phocas (963-969) Cyprus
was freed completely from the Arabs, who had sometimes treated it more kindly
than the Byzantine emperors. Christianity, however, gained by the restoration.
To this period belongs the foundation of three great monasteries, Our Lady of
Pity (Eleusa) of Kykkos, Machaeras, and the Encleistra, the last founded in the
twelfth century by the recluse Neophytus, author of several ascetical works. The
Frankish rule, though at first accepted rather willingly, was finally the source
of profound disturbance. In 1196 King Amaury obtained from Celestine III a Latin
hierarchy for his kingdom: a resident archbishop was placed at Nicosia (Leucosia),
with three suffragans at Paphos, Limasol (Temessos), and Famagusta (Ammochostos,
formerly Arsinoe). Knights Templars, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians,
Benedictines, Cistercians, Carthusians, Regular Canons, Premonstratensian nuns
soon had many flourishing monasteries. Splendid churches were built in the Gothic
or ogival style, and many Greek churches were changed into Latin ones. Ecclesiastical
revenues were assigned (in part) to the Latin clergy; the Greek clergy and the
faithful were subordinated to Latin jurisdiction. In the execution of the decrees
of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) Cardinal Pelagius, legate of Innocent III,
showed himself utterly intransigent. Thirteen refractory Greek monks were cruelly
put to death. The Greek archbishop, Neophytus, was deposed and exiled, the Greek
sees reduced to four, the bishops ordered to reside in small villages and obey
the Latin archbishop (1220-1222). Innocent IV and Alexander IV were more favourable
to the Greeks (Hergenrother-Kirsch, Kirchengesch., 4th ed., 1904, II, 726), and
the Government often defended them against the Latins. The ecclesiastical history
of Cyprus during this sad period is one of conflict between the two rival communions,
the Greeks being always looked on as more or less schismatic both by the Latins
and by the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople. An attempted union of the two Churches
in 1405 did not succeed, nor was the Union of Florence (1439) more lasting. In
1489, through the abdication of Queen Caterina Cornaro, the island became subject
to Venice, whose rule was even more intolerable to the Greeks, so that, as stated,
in 1571 they welcomed the Turkish conquerors as true deliverers.
Among the more conspicuous Latin Archbishops of Nicosia may be mentioned
Eustorge de Montaigu (1217-1250) who died at the siege of Damietta, a stern defender
of the rights of his Church and a skilful administrator; he increased the splendour
of the church services, established schools, built the archiepiscopal palace and
the magnificent cathedral of St. Sophia; Ugo di Fagiano (1251-1261), distinguished
for his zeal and piety, but a zealous adversary of the Greeks; Gerard de Langres
(1274), deposed by Boniface VIII for siding with Philip the Fair; Giovanni del
Conte (1312), renowned for his charity; Cardinal Elie de Nabinals (1332), a great
reformer; Andreas of Rhodes (1447), present at the Council of Florence; Filippo
Mocenigo (1559), who assisted at the closing sessions of the Council of Trent,
helped the Venetians against the Turks, and, after the loss of Cyprus, retired
to Italy. The Latin bishops of Cyprus showed themselves generally worthy of their
mission, by resisting the encroachments of the kings, sometimes also of the Latin
Patriarchs of Jerusalem, and even of the pontifical legates. The only reproach
they deserve is a want of tact in their behaviour towards the Greeks, and also
that their clergy at certain times were guilty of moral laxity. Few saints appear
in Latin Cyprus; we hear only of the saintly Franciscan, Ugo di Fagiano, and the
Dominican, Pierre de La Palu, Patriarch of Jerusalem and administrator of the
See of Limasol. Blessed Pierre Thomas, a Carmelite and papal legate, who strove
hard to convert the Greeks, died at the siege of Famagusta in 1366.
After frightful massacres, the Turks allowed the Greeks to reorganize
their Church as they liked: viz, with an archbishop styled "Most Blessed Archbishop
of Nea Justiniana [a blunder for Justinianopolis] and all Cyprus", and three bishops
at Paphos, Citium, and Karpasia. In the seventeenth century the last-named see
was suppressed, and its territory given to the archdiocese; on the other hand
the ancient See of Kyrenia was re-established. Cyprus, like the other autocephalous
orthodox Churches, has its "Holy Synod", which consists of four bishops and four
priests. In the last three centuries there are few events to mention, apart from
simoniacal elections and perpetual domestic quarrels. In 1668 Archbishop Nicephorus
held a council against the Protestants. In 1821 the four Greek bishops, with many
priests, monks, and laymen, were murdered by the Turks. After 1900 strife arose
in the ancient Church of St. Barnabas, and it was found impossible to name a successor
to the archbishop who died in that year. The Turkish conquest caused the ruin
of the Latin Church: two bishops were then killed with many priests and monks,
the churches were profaned, and the Latin Catholics left the island. However,
as early as 1572, Franciscans could again reside at Larnaca; after a century they
had gathered about 2000 Catholics of various rites. Since 1848 Cyprus has been
ecclesiastically dependent on the new Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem. The Franciscans
have stations at Larnaca, Limasol, and Nicosia, with schools and five churches;
Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition conduct schools in these three towns,
and have a hospital and an orphanage at Larnaca.
The Maronites were very numerous during the period of Latin rule,
but owing to persecutions of Greeks or Turks have mostly all departed or apostatized.
The latter are called Linobambaci; some of them returned to Catholicism. Cyprus,
with a part of Lebanon, still forms a Maronite diocese, with 30,000 faithful.
They have in the island a few churches and four monasteries, but lack good schools.
Among the resident Armenians there is only an insignificant number (12) of Catholics;
the rest obey the Gregorian Patriarch of Jerusalem and have two priests and a
monastery. Other Christians of Eastern Rites, who lived in Cyprus during the Middle
Ages, subject to their own bishops, have now completely disappeared.
S. Petrides, ed.
Transcribed by: Diane E. Dubrule
This text is cited June 2004 from The Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent online edition URL below.
Lobby for Cyprus is a non party political, non sectarian organisation based in the UK with the aim of reuniting Cyprus. Lobby was formed in 1993 and since its inception has campaigned vigorously against the brutal invasion, occupation, ethnic cleansing and destruction of the Hellenic heritage of 37% of the Republic of Cyprus by Turkey.
A large island of the Mediterranean, south of Cilicia and west
of Syria, identical, at least in part, with the Hebrew Kittim, which seems to
be its oldest known name; but it appears to be sometimes included in the name
Caphtor, a title that properly belongs to Crete with other islands and coast lands
settled by the Caphtorim. Other ancient names of Cyprus, most of them poetical,
are Aeria, Aerosa, Acamantis, Amathusia, Aphrodisia, Aphelia, Collinia, Cerastis,
Cryptos, Meinis, Ophiusa, Macaria, Paphos, Sphekeia. The derivation of the name
is uncertain, but the principal authorities, ancient and modern, refer it to the
Hebrew kopher or gopher, the name of a tree; sometimes, without adequate reason,
connecting it with cupressus. Another derivation is from cuprum, "copper,"
formerly found in the island; but the chalkos kuprios or aes cyprium probably
took its name from the island, not the island from the metal.
Cyprus is reckoned by Strabo (or Timaeus, whom he follows)
to be the third in extent of the Mediterranean isles. Its shape was aptly compared
by the ancients to the outspread skin of an ox, or to the fleece of a sheep. Its
extreme length, from Cape Acamas (now Cape Arnaouti or Epiphanio) on the west
to the promontory Dinaretum (now St. Andrea) on the east, is about 140 miles;
its greatest breadth, from Crommyon (now Cormaciti) on the north to Cape Curias
(now Cape Gatto), on the south, about 60; its width varying greatly, the long
strip that ends at Dinaretum being very narrow and scarcely more than 10 miles
across at any point. Off Dinaretum are several small islands called Kleides (Keys).
The coast is provided with numerous bays; but the harbors are now mere roadsteads,
though the remains of ancient artificial harbor moles are to be seen at several
places (as New Paphos, Soli, etc.).
From Crommyon to Dinaretum, along and quite near the coast,
extends a mountainous chain, of which the highest peaks are Buffavento (3240 ft.),
Pentedactylon (2480 ft.), and Elias (2810 ft.). The principal ranges, however,
are in the west and southwest, the highest point being Mount Olympus (Trodos or
Troodos, 6590 ft.), nearly midway between Curium on the south coast and Soli on
the north, from the top of which a view of the whole island can be obtained. Next
in height is Mount Adelphi (Maschera, 5380 ft.), a few miles to the east; still
farther east, a hill (4370 ft.) whose ancient name is unknown; and still farther
east again, Mount Santa Croce (Stavros, 2300 ft.). The chain extends nearly to
Famagousta (Ammochostos, Constantia-Salamis), with frequent spurs to the shore;
and spurs also extend from Olympus radially to the north, west, and south. Between
the two ranges is a vast plain, now called the Messouria, whose principal river
is the Pidias (Pidaeas), emptying into the sea near Salamis. The Messouria to-day
is one vast grain-field, interspersed with insignificant villages. The island
formerly abounded in trees and timber, of which it is now mostly denuded, though
the kharub, olive, fig, orange, date-palm, lemon, nectarines, apricots, etc.,
and others suited to the climate flourish. Wild grape-vines still grow to an immense
size. Wine, of various sorts, is abundant; the best and most famous being the
Commanderia wine, so named from its original producers, the Knights of St. John,
at Colossi. Formerly Cyprus yielded to no region in fertility, producing an abundance
of grain, wine, oil, and fruits. At the proper season the hills and uncultivated
plains are carpeted with anemones, ranunculuses, crocuses, hyacinths, squills,
and a great variety of other flowers, especially those with bulbous roots. One
ancient epithet of Cyprus is euodes. But agriculture, along with irrigation and
drainage, is much neglected. Salt lakes, or “Salines,” exist near Larnaca, the
ancient Citium, furnishing now, as in the times of Pliny, vast supplies of salt
for home consumption and exportation, the salt coating the surface as the summer
heat evaporates the water. The climate is still that of the ancient nimio calore.
Although the names of special historians have come down to
us, we possess no ancient special treatise or history of the island, but are dependent
for information anciently current upon the frequent mention in the Greek and Roman
classics, with brief notices in the later historians. These are best collected
in Engel's monograph Kypros.
The earliest inhabitants have generally been supposed to be
Phoenicians, and it is true that the Phoenician language retained its hold in
certain parts of Cyprus as late as anywhere, contemporarily, of course, with the
Greek, the Lycian (locally), and later with the Latin. The Cypriotes, however,
spoke a language peculiar to themselves, as was long ago evident from the scattered
glosses preserved by the grammarians and lexicographers, and as has lately been
further and most conclusively shown by the recent discovery and decipherment of
inscriptions in the peculiar Cypriote character. This language was essentially
Greek; and the Greek of Cyprus to-day embraces many peculiarities of its own.
The legendary hero of Cyprus was Cinyras, who is said to have come to the island
at the time of the beginning of the Trojan War. Without going into the matter
of the legend, it may be said that Greek inscriptions of the "Cinyradae"
(the priestly caste of Old Paphos, etc.) have been found in the island within
the last twenty years. The chief religion of the island was notoriously the worship
of Venus; but with few exceptions (as e. g. Zeus Labranios, introduced near Amathus
from Caria) the religion and deities were introduced from Phoenicia, and thus
indirectly from the farther East--with, however, some Greek modification. Aphrodite,
Apollo, Hercules, and other deities usually called Greek or Roman were thus introduced,
the Greek and Phoenician names of some of them appearing now and then on the same
bilingual inscription. Aphrodite had her epithet of "Paphian" not only
at Paphos, where her rites included all the extravagancies of Mylitta at Babylon,
but at the other seats of her worship--Golgos, Dali, Cerynia, etc. Apollo Hylates,
who had a temple at Curium, is called by that name and also by his Phoenician
name of Resheph Mical on a bilingual inscription found at Dali. A temple to Eshmunmelqarth
(=Aesculapius-Hercules), a Phoenician deity much like the Greek Palaemon and the
Roman Portumnus, near the Salines at Larnaca, has furnished a number of Phoenician
inscriptions of the fourth century b.c.; while a temple to Artemis Paralia, close
at hand, has furnished a few Greek inscriptions and an immense number of valuable
terra-cotta remains.
Aside from the mythical reign of Cinyras over the whole island,
the territory, so far as we know, was broken up into a number of kingdoms, whose
detailed history has well-nigh perished. A dynasty of Phoenician kings ruled over
Citium, Idalium, and Tamassus in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Salamis,
said to have been founded by Teucer, and by him named after his native city, had
its own Greek kings at the same period. Paphos had its dynasty of the Cinyradae,
who seem also to have extended their power over Amathus and certain other parts.
Soli and Cythrea traced their origin to the Athenians; Lapethus and Cerynia to
a Lacedaemonian colony under Praxander and an Achaean one under Cepheus; Curium
to the Argives. A town Asine, whose site is not known, is said to have been colonized
by the Dryopians; Neo-Paphos by Agapenor. The promontory Acamas is said to have
its name from the hero of the Trojan War. Old Paphos, Amathus, and Citium were
founded by the Ph?nicians; and of these, Citium (with Dali and Tamassus) seems
to have retained its Ph?nician character with less modification than the others.
Carpassia seems also to have had a Ph?nician origin. Articles of Phoenician manufacture--bronze,
gold, silver, pottery, etc.--have been found in abundance all over the island.
Aside from these scattered data, we know that Thothmes III.
of Egypt (cir. B.C. 1500) conquered Cyprus; Belus of Tyre was at one time its
master; ten kingdoms, including Soli, Chytri, Curium, Lapethus, Cerynia, Neo Paphos,
Marium, Idalium, Citium, and Amathus, sent their submission to the Assyrian Esarhaddon
(cir. B.C. 890); Sargon put the island to tribute (cir. B.C. 707); Apries (Pharaoh
Hophra) of Egypt defeated some Cyprian monarchs near Citium, and returned home
laden with their spoils; Amasis of Egypt overran the island and put it to tribute,
but the Cyprian rulers joined Cambyses the Persian against the son of Amasis.
The king of Amathus revolted from the Persians in the time of Darius, and the
longest record extant in the Cypriote character commemorates one of the side issues
of this struggle. In B.C. 477, the Athenians and Lacedaemonians conquered part
of Cyprus from the Persians; and a war resulted in which the Greeks, with the
Tyrians and Egyptians as allies, were on one side, and the Persians on the other.
The power of Alexander the Great was both felt and helped in Cyprus, after which,
under the Ptolemies, followed wars and doubtful sovereignty, till Demetrius Poliorcetes
conquered the island (cir. B.C. 306). About B.C. 296, Ptolemy Soter took the island,
after which it remained under Egypt till conquered by the Romans.
Literature and the arts flourished in Cyprus even from a very
early period, as witness the "Cypria Carmina," by some attributed to
Homer. Citium was the birthplace of Zeno. It is foreign to the present article
to trace the history of the island during the Roman rule, the Arabs, the dukedoms
of the Crusades, Richard of England, the Lusignans, the Turks, and the recent
occupation by the English. Its geographical position made it the field for the
exhibition of the arts, deeds, and cults of various nations; and its remains,
as brought to light in the explorations of the last twenty-five Vase, with Ph?nician
Inscription Burnt on the Clay. [p. 458] years, have given a deeper insight into
the ancient life and occupations and attainments of its successive peoples and
masters than it had been thought possible hitherto to attain, and necessitated
the rewriting of the principal chapters in the history of ancient art. From the
time of Pococke, who, nearly three centuries ago, made his famous discoveries
of Ph?nician inscriptions (chiefly about Citium), down to the English occupation,
scattered and partial explorations have been made. The discovery, in the first
half of this century, of inscriptions in a character hitherto unknown, and their
decipherment, from 1873 onward, has furnished most valuable clues to the history
of religions in Cyprus and the transference of deities thither from the East,
besides many minor historical matters and a vast addition to the knowledge of
Greek dialects. The characters are syllabic, with peculiar laws of writing, and
the language Greek. Some hundreds of these inscriptions are now known (the most
of them found by Di Cesnola)--some bilingual (Phoenician and Cypriote) and some
digraphic (Greek and Cypriote). The decipherment is a brilliant record--George
Smith, of England, discovering the key in a bilingual inscription now in the British
Museum; R. H. Lang simultaneously and independently proving the incorrectness
of certain previous attempts by others; after which Samuel Birch made additional
progress; and complete inscriptions were first read simultaneously and independently
by Justus Siegismund and W. Deecke of Strassburg, M. Schmidt of Jena, and I. H.
Hall of New York, since which time many writers have contributed lexicographic
and dialectic additions.
The discoveries by exploration and excavation have been chiefly
made (though the work of others is not inconsiderable) by L. P. di Cesnola, while
U. S. Consul at Cyprus, from 1866 to 1877. His work covered nearly all parts of
the island, discovering the sites of many ancient cities, and ruins of others
whose ancient identity is not yet known, besides many temples, necropoles, ancient
aqueducts, and other remains, including over 200 inscriptions, in Assyrian, Cypriote,
Phoenician, Greek, and Latin. The greatest number (many thousands) and most important
of the objects discovered are deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York, though many found their way to European museums and private collections.
The Cyprian Sarcophagus--Roman Period. statuary, pottery, terra-cottas, glass,
gold, silver, and gems are a unique and unrivalled collection, and their value
for the study of Phoenician and Greek archaeology, art, and history appears in
their unceasing use in the learned publications of all countries. Since the occupation
of Cyprus by the English, others have excavated and explored, but by no means
on the same scale, the principal works accomplished being the further excavation
of the site of the greater temple of Venus at Old Paphos, and some large operations
near Salamis.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Large island in eastern Mediterranean, off the coast of Syria.
By its location, Cyprus was at the crossroad of many civilizations from the Middle
East, Egypt and Greece,
though its situation as an island and the richness of its soil (especially rich
copper mines that were at the root of its prosperity and induced trade relations
with most of the Middle East) allowed it to keep its specificity over the centuries.
Cyprus had been populated since a very remote past. Around 1450 B.
C., Greeks of the Mycenaean civilization established trade posts in the island.
Yet, the kings that were reigning over Cyprus stayed in power and managed to keep
their autonomy and neutrality in the power struggles that opposed the Hittites
kings from Anatolia and the pharaohs of Egypt
during the XIVth and XIIIth centuries B.C . Centuries later, toward the end of
the IXth century and during the VIIIth century B. C., Phoenician merchants established
trade posts on the southern shore of the island, in cities like Citium.
Yet, most of the island stayed under the control of kings of Salamis,
vassals of the Assyrian Empire. With the fall of Nineveh (612), the Assyrian dominion
over the island was replaced by that of Egypt,
followed by that of Persia
in the time of Cyrus the Great and his successors.
Greek mythology of classical times links Cyprus to Teucrus, son of
Telamon, the king of Salamis
and father of the Great Ajax, one of the most prominent Greek heroes during the
Trojan war. When he came back to Salamis
after the war, where his elder brother Ajax had been killed, his father Telamon
exiled him for not having protected or avenged his brother. Teucrus fled to Syria,
where the king of the place settled him in Cyprus that he had just conquered.
There, Teucrus founded a city that he called Salamis
as well.
Back in the historical times, Cyprus, under the leadership of Onesilus,
brother of the king of Salamis,
took part in 498 in an uprising against Darius, the Persian King, along with Ionian
cities led by Aristagoras, ruler of Miletus.
But the attempt failed, the combined Ionian fleet and Cypriot army were defeated
on sea and land by Darius' troops and his Phoenician navy near Salamis
of Cyprus, and Onesilus was killed.
Bernard Suzanne (page last updated 1998), ed.
This extract is cited July 2003 from the Plato and his dialogues URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks.
Cyprus (Kupros: Eth. and Adj. Kuprios, Kupriakos, Kuprieus, Kuprites,
Cyprius, Cypriacus: Kibris), an island lying off the coast of Phoenicia and Cilicia.
The physical features and the legends connected with this chosen seat
of Aphrodite, have given rise to a multitude of names. 1. Acamantis (Akamantis).
2. Amathusia (Amathousia). 3. Aspelia. 4. Colinia. 5. Cerastis (Kerasrtis). 6.
Cryptos (Kruptos). 7. Macaria (Makaria). 8. Meionis (Meionis). 9. Ophiusa (Ophiusia
arva, Ov. Met x. 229). 10. Spheceia (Ophekeia).
According to ancient admeasurements the circuit of this island amounted
to 3420 stadia. (Strab. xiv. p. 682.) Its greatest length from W. to E., between
Cape Acamas and the islands called the Keys of Cyprus (Kleides), was reckoned
at 1400 stadia. (Strab. l. c.; Plin. v. 35; Agathem. i. 5.) The principal or SW.
part of the island has the form of an irregular parallelogram, and terminates
with a long narrow peninsula, running in a NE. direction. Its shape was compared
fancifully by the old writers to a fleece (Agathem. l. c.), or to a Gallic shield
(Hygin. Fab. 276). The surface of the country is almost entirely occupied by the
elevated range of Mt. Olympus, whose culminating points reach the height of 7000
feet. The slopes descend both on the N. and S. shores: on the former side the
chain is bold and rugged; on the S. side the scenery is still bolder, presenting
a deeply serrated outline with thickly wooded steeps, which are broken by masses
of limestone, or furrowed by deep picturesque valleys, in which grow the narcissus,
the anemone, and ranunculus.
The mountains contained: copper (chalkos Kuprios, aes Cyprium), the
most famous mines of which were to be found at Tamassus, Amathus, Soli, and Curion
(Plin. xii. 60, xxxiv. 20), as well as the nobler metals, gold and silver. The
precious stones of Cyprus were famous in antiquity. They were: the adamas vergens
in aerium colorem (Plin. xxxvii. 15), whether this was the diamond seems doubtful,
as it has been thought that Pliny was unacquainted with the real diamond (Dana,
Mineralogy, p. 401); the smaragdos (xxxvii. 17), emerald; the chalcosmaragdos
turbida aereis venis (xxxvii. 19), malachite (?), or more probably red jasper;
paederos (xxxvii. 22), opal; achates (xxxvii. 54), agate; and asbestos (Dioscor.
v. 156). The land is described as flowing with wine, oil (Strab. p. 684), and
honey (Plin. xi. 14); and the fragrance of its flowers gave it the epithet of
euodes - the plaything (athurma) of the goddess of Love. (Eustath. ad Dionys.
Per. 508.)
Cyprus lies between Asia and Africa, and the flora and fauna of the
island partake of the characteristics of both continents. A list of the plants,
birds, quadrupeds, and fishes, found in Cyprus, is given in Walpole (Turkey and
Greece, vol. i. p. 253, foll.). The Ferula Graeca - or nartheka, as it is now
called, with a slight alteration from the ancient name - is one of the most important
plants of the island in respect to its economical uses. The stalks furnish the
poor Cyprian with a great part of his household furniture; and the pith is used
instead of tinder for conveying fire from one place to another, as taught by Prometheus
of old. (Aesch. Prom. 109.)
The level tracts were in the neighbourhood of Salamis and Citium,
the former was watered by the river Pediaeus, and the latter by the Tretus; but,
as these streams are occasionally dry, marshes have in consequence been formed.
Strabo (xiv. p. 682) begins his description of the island with Cape Acamas (Akamas),
at the W. extremity of the island, which he describes as a thickly wooded headland,
divided into two summits rising towards the N. (Comp. Ptol. v. 14 § 1; Plin. v.
31; Stadiasm. § § 282, 292, 293.) The modern name, after the celebrated metropolitan
of Cyprus, is Haghios Epiphanios, which is shortened into St. Pifano. The next
point, in a S. direction, is Drepanon (Drepanon, Ptol. v. 14. § 1: Trepano). Then
the roadstead and harbour of Paphos (Paphos). The cape which closes the bay of
Baffo to the W. is the Zephyrium Promontorium (Zephurion, Ptol. v. 14. § 1; Zephuria
akra, Strab. p. 683). To the S. is another headland, Arsinoe (Arsinoe), followed
by Phrurium (Phrourion, Ptol. v. 14. § 1: Capo Blanco). At a little distance further
inland was Hierocepia (Hierokepia, Strab. p. 684). Then follow Palaepaphos (Palaipaphos:
Kukla or Konuklia), Boosura (Boosoura: Bisur), Treta (Treta: Tera), and Curium
(Kourion) with a port built by the Argives. Near this was the point of Curias
(Kourias: Capo delle Gatte), at a little distance from which are some salt marshes
which receive an arm of the river Lycus (Lukos, Ptol. v. 14. § 2). Amathus (Amathous:
Old Limasol), which next followed, was a Phoenician colony. Beyond was the little
town of Palaea (Palaia, Strab. p. 683), at the foot of a mountain shaped like
a breast (mastoeides), Olympus (Olumpos: Monte Sta. Croce). Citium (Kition) was
a large town with a harbour that could be closed; to the W. of it was the little
river Tetius (Tetios, Ptol. v. 14. § 2: Tesis), and to the E. the promontory Dades
(Daides, Ptol. l. c.: Kiti). A rugged line of coast follows for several miles
along a bay which lies between this headland and that of Throni (Thronoi: Pila).
Above Pedalium (Pedalion: Capo della Grega), the next point on the E. coast, rose
a hill with a temple consecrated to Aphrodite. The harbour Leucolla (Leukolla:
Porta Arnio dia e Lucola). Ammochostus (Ammochostos, Ptol. v. 14. § 3; Stadiasm.
§ 287), near the river Pediaeus (Pediaios), a name which has been transmitted
by corruption to the Venetian Famagosta. Further N. was Salamis (Salamis), Elaea
(Elaia, Ptol. l. c.: Chaulu-bernau), Urania (Ouranies pedon hedres, Nonn. Dionys.
xiii. 450), Carpasia (Karpasia), and the promontory called Dinaretum, with the
islands called the Keys of Cyprus (hai Kleides). The ironbound shore to the NE.
was called the shore of the Greeks (Achaion akte: Jalousa), from the story that
Teucer and his colonists had landed here. (Strab.) On this coast, 70 stadia from
Salamis, was Aphrodisium (Aphrodision, Ptol. v. 14. § 4; Strab.), Macaria (Makaria,
Ptol. l. c.), Cerynia (Keruneia), and Lapethus (Lapethos: Lapitho or Lapta). Cape
Crommyon (Krommuon akra) was the most N. point of the island; near this were the
towns of Cerbia (Kerbeia) and Soli (Soloi). The promontory of Callinusa (Kallinonsa)
completes the circuit of the island. In the interior were the towns of Aepeia
(Aipeia), Limenia (Limenia), Tamassus (Tamassos), Tremithus (Tremithous), Leucosia
(Leukosia), Chytrus (Chutros), and Marium (Marion). An account of these places
will be found under their several heads: most of the towns have now disappeared.
Cyprus seems to have been colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early
period, and if we may trust the Syrian annals consulted by the historian Menander
(Joseph. Ant. viii. 5. § 3, c. Apion. 1. 18; comp. Virg. Aen. 1, 643), was subject
to the Syrians, even in the time of Solomon. We do not know the dates of the establishment
of the Greek cities in this island; but there can be no doubt but that they were
later than this period, and that a considerable portion of the soil and trade
of Cyprus passed from the Phoenicians to the Greeks. Under Amasis the island became
subject to the Aegyptian throne (Herod. ii. 182); he probably sent over African
colonists. (Comp. Herod. vii. 90.) On the invasion of Aegypt by Cambysses Cyprus
surrendered to the Persians, and furnished a squadron for the expedition. (Herod.
iii. 19.) It continued to form a part of the Persian empire, and was with Phoenicia
and Palestine the fifth satrapy in the arrangement made by Dareius (Herod. iii.
91.) During the Ionian revolt the whole island, except Amathus, threw off the
Persian yoke. The Cyprians were attacked by the Persians by land and sea, and
after varying success, were defeated, and their leader Onesilus slain. After this
the island was again subject to Dareius (Herod. v. 104-116), and in the expedition
of Xerxes furnished 150 ships. (Herod. vii. 90.) After the overthrow of the Persians
at Salamis, a Grecian fleet was despatched to Cyprus and reduced the greater part
of it. (Thuc. i. 94.) The Athenians sent out another expedition against it, but
in consequence of a plague and the death of Cimon, the attempt was relinquished.
(Thuc. i. 112.) The brilliant period of its history belongs to the times of Evagoras,
king of Salamis, when Hellenic customs and civilization received a new impulse.
He was succeeded by his son Nicocles; another Evagoras, son of Nicocles, was joined
with Phocion, to recover Cyprus for the king of Persia, from whom it had revolted.
(Diod. xvi. 42, 46.) Cyprus again became a tributary to the Persians, and remained
such till the battle of Issus, when the several states declared for Alexander,
and joined the Macedonian fleet with 120 ships at the siege of Tyre. (Arrian.
ii. 20.) They were afterwards ordered to cruise off the Peloponnesus with 100
ships along with the Phoenicians. (Arrian. iii. 6.) When the empire of Alexander
was broken up, Cyprus fell with Aegypt to the lot of Ptolemy. Demetrius invaded
the island with a powerful fleet and army, defeated Ptolemy's brother Menelaus,
and shut him up in Salamis, which he besieged both by sea and land. Ptolemy hastened
to his relief with 140 ships; and after a sea-fight, one of the most memorable
in ancient history, B.C. 306, the whole island fell into the hands of Demetrius.
(Diod. xx. 47-53; Plut. Demetr. 15-18; Polyaen. iv. 7. § 7; Justin. xv. 2.) In
B.C. 295, Ptolemy recovered the island, and it became from this time an integral
portion of the Aegyptian monarchy. (Plut. Demetr. 35, 38.) It formed the brightest
jewel in the Alexandrian diadem; the timber of Olympus was used for the navy of
Aegypt, and its metallic and other riches contributed to the revenue. Independently
of its importance as a military position, the Ptolemies had a personal interest
in securing it as a place of refuge for themselves or their treasures, in case
of invasion or internal revolutions. Under the Lagid dynasty, the government of
the island was committed to some one belonging to the highest class of the Alexandrian
court, called the kinsmen of the king. This viceroy had full powers, as it would
appear from the inscriptions in which he is entitled strategos kai nauarchos kai
archiereus ho kata ten neson. Ptolemy Philadelphus founded the Cyprian cities
which bore the name of his wife, Arsinoe. On the decline and fall of Aegypt, Cyprus
with Cyrenaica was the only foreign possession remaining to the crown. Polycrates,
an Argive, about B.C. 217, was governor of Cyprus, and secured, by his faithfulness
and integrity, the island for Ptolemy Epiphanes, the infant son and successor
of Philopator. On the division of the monarchy between the brothers Ptolemy Philometor
and Euergetes, Euergetes,in contravention of the arrangement was anxious to take
Cyprus to his share. In B.C. 154, Euergetes went to Rome, to seek assistance from
the senate. Five legates, but no Roman army, were despatched to aid him; but Philometor,
anticipating him, had already occupied Cyprus with a large force, so that when
his brother landed at the head of his mercenary troops, he was soon defeated and
shut up in Lapethus, where he was compelled to surrender, on condition that he
should content himself with the kingdom of Cyrene. The Romans did not again interfere
to disturb the arrangement thus concluded. During the dissensions of the brothers,
Demetrius Soter, king of Syria, had endeavoured to make himself master of Cyprus,
but unsuccessfully. On the accession of Ptolemy Lathyrus to the throne of Aegypt,
his younger brother, Ptolemy Alexander, went to Cyprus. Afterwards, when by the
intrigues of Cleopatra, the queen.mother, Alexander became king of Aegypt, Lathyrus
retired to Cyprus, and held it as an independent kingdom for the 18 years during
which Cleopatra and Alexander reigned in Aegypt, B.C. 107-89. When Lathyrus was
recalled by the Alexandrians to Aegypt, Alexander, his brother, in the hope of
becoming master of Cyprus, invaded the island; but was defeated in a naval action
by Chaereas, and fell in the battle. While Ptolemy Auletes occupied the throne
of Aegypt, another Ptolemy, a younger brother, was king of Cyprus. This prince
had obtained from the Roman people the complimentary title of their friend. (Cic.
pro Sest. 26; Schol. Bob. p. 301, ed. Orell.) On the pretence that he had abetted
the pirates (Schol. Bob. l. c.), he was commanded to descend from the throne.
In B.C. 58, Clodius, who had a personal enmity against the king (Appian. B.C.
ii. 23; Dion Cass. xxxviii. 30), proposed to deprive him of his kingdom, and confiscate
his large treasures to the service of the state. A rogation was brought forward
by the tribune, that Cato should be appointed to carry into execution this act
of frightful injustice. Cato accepted this disgraceful commission; but half ashamed
of the transaction, despatched a friend from Rhodes to deliver the decree, and
to hold out to the injured king the promise of an honourable compensation in the
priesthood of the Paphian Aphrodite. Ptolemy preferred to submit to a voluntary
death. (Plut. Cat. Min. 34, 39.) Cyprus became a Roman province, and the fatal
treasures amassed by the king, were poured into the coffers of the state. (Pat.
Vell. ii. 45.) The island was annexed to Cilicia (Cic. ad Fam. i. 7; ad Att. vi.
2), but had a quaestor of its own (ad Fam. xiii. 48), and its own courts for the
administration of justice (ad Att. v. 21). In B.C. 47, it was given by Caesar
to Arsinoe and Ptolemy, the sister and brother of Cleopatra. (Dion Cass. xlii.
95.) M. Antonius afterwards presented it to the children of Cleopatra. (Dion Cass.
xlix. 32, 41; comp. Strab. p. 685.) After the battle of Actium, at the division
of the provinces between the emperor and the senate, B.C. 27, it was made an imperial
province. (Dion Cass. liii. 12.) In B.C. 22, it was given up to the senate (Dion
Cass. liv. 4), and was from that time governed by proprietors, with the title
of Proconsul, with a legatus and a quaestor. (Marquardt, Becker's Rom. Alt. vol.
iii. pt. 1. p. 172; Orell. Inscr. 3102.) The proconsul resided at Paphos. (Act.
Apost. xiii. 6, 7.) From the narrative in the Acts of the Apostles (xiii. 4-12),
it would seem that a considerable part of the population was of Jewish extraction;
and in the fatal insurrection during the reign of Hadrian, they are said to have
massacred 240,000 of the Grecian inhabitants, and obtained temporary possession
of the island. (Milman, Hist. of Jews, vol. ii. p. 112.) Under the Byzantine emperors
it was governed by a Consularis, and the capital was transferred from Paphos to
Salamis or Constantia (Hierocl.). In A.D. 648, Moawiyah, the general of Othman,
invaded the island, which capitulated, the Saracen general agreeing to share the
revenues with the Greek emperor, In A.D. 803-806, it fell into the hands of Harun
el Rashid, but was afterwards restored to the empire by the conquests of Nicephorus
II. Isaac Angelus lost the island where Alexis Commenus had made himself independent;
but was deprived of his conquest by Richard Coeur de Lion, A.D. 1191, who ceded
it to the Templars, but afterwards resumed the sovereignty, and in A.D. 1192,
gave it to King Guido of Jerusalem. Cyprus was never again united to the Byzantine
empire.
Cyprus, lying in that sea which was the extreme nurse of the Grecian
race, never developed the nobler features of Hellenic culture and civilization.
The oriental character entirely predominated; the worship had but little connection
with the graceful anthropomorphism of Hellas, but was rather a deification of
the generative powers of nature as common to the Phoenicians, mixed up with orgiastic
rites from Phrygia. The goddess, who was evidently the same as the Semitic Astarte,
was worshipped under the form of a rude conical stone. (Tac. Hist. ii. 3.) The
exuberance of nature served to stifle every higher feeling in sensual enjoyment.
(Comp. Athen. vi. p. 257, xii. p. 516.) A description of the constitution was
given in the lost work of Aristotle on the Polities, and Theophrastus had composed
a treatise upon the same subject. (Suid. s. v. Tiara.) That such men should have
thought it worth their while to investigate this matter shows that it possessed
considerable interest; as far as the scanty notices that have come down go, it
appears to have been governed by petty princes of an oriental character. (Comp.
Herod. vii. 90.) For coins of Cyprus, see Eckhel, vol. iii. p. 84; H. P. Borrell,
Notice surquelq. Med. gr. des Rois de Chypre. Paris, 1836; Meursius, Creta, Cyprus,
&c., Amst. 1675; D'Anville, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. vol. xxxii. p. 548; Mariti,
Viaggi, vol. i.; Von Hammer, Topogr. Ansicht. aus der Levante: Turner's Levant:
vol. ii. pp. 40, 528; Engel, Kypros; Ross, Reisen nach Kos, Halikarnassos, Rhodos,
und der Inseln Cypern, Halle, 1852; Luynes, Numismatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes,
Paris, 1852.
This text is from: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. William Smith, LLD). Cited September 2004 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Andromachus. The commander of the Cyprian fleet at the siege of Tyre by Alexander, B. C. 332. (Arrian, Anab. ii. 20.) He may have been the same Andromachus who was shortly afterwards appointed governor of Coele-Syria, and was burnt to death by the Samaritans. (Curt. iv. 5, 8.)
Aristeas, or Aristaeus, a Cyprian by nation, was a high officer at the court of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, and was distinguished for his military talents. Ptolemy
being anxious to add to his newly founded library at Alexandria (B. C. 273) a
copy of the Jewish law, sent Aristeas and Andreas, the commander of his body-guard,
to Jerusalem. They carried presents to the temple, and obtained from the high-priest,
Eleazar, a genuine copy of the Pentateuch, and a body of seventy elders, six from
each tribe, who could translate it into Greek. On their arrival in Egypt, the
elders were received with great distinction by Ptolemy, and were lodged in a house
in the island of Pharos, where, in the space of seventy-two days, they completed
a Greek version of the Pentateuch, which was called, from the number of the translators,
kata tous hebdomekonta (the Septuagint), and the same name was extended to the
Greek version of the whole of the Old Testament, when it had been completed under
the auspices of the Ptolemies. The above account is given in a Greek work which
professes to be a letter from Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, but which is
generally admitted by the best critics to be spurious. It is probably the fabrication
of an Alexandrian Jew shortly before the Christian aera. The fact seems to be,
that the version of the Pentateuch was made in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, between
the years 298 and 285 B. C. for the Jews who had been brought into Egypt by that
king in 320 B. C. It may have obtained its name from its being adopted by the
Sanhedrim (or council of seventy) of the Alexandrian Jews. The other books of
the Septuagint version were translated by different persons and at various times.
The letter ascribed to Aristeas was first printed in Greek and Latin,
by Simon Schard, Basil. 1561, and reprinted at Oxford, 1692; the best edition
is in Gallandi Biblioth. Patr. ii. (Fabric. Bib. Graec. iii. 660).
The story about Aristeas and the seventy interpreters is told, chiefly on the
authority of the letter but differing from it in some points, by Aristobulus,
a Jewish philosopher (ap. Euseb. Praep. Evan. xiii. 12), Philo Judaeus (Vit. Mos.
2), Josephus (Ant. Jud. xii. 2), Justin Martyr (Cohort. ad Graec., Apol., Dial.
cum Tryph.), Irenaeuss (Adv. Haer. iii. 25), Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom. i.),
Tertullian (Apolog. 18), Eusebius (Praep. Eran. viii. 1), Athanasius (Synop. S.
Scrip. ii.), Cyril of Jerusalem (Catech.), Epiphanius (De Mens. et Pond. 3), Jerome
(Praef: in Pentateuch; Quaest. in Genes. Prooem.), Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xviii.
42, 43), Chrysostom (Adv. Jud. i.), Hilary of Poitiers (In Psalm. 2), and Theodoret
(Praef in Psalm).
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Of Cyprus; an epic poet, to whom some of the ancient writers attributed the poem of the Epic Cycle, entitled Cypria, and embracing the period antecedent to the Iliad.
Demonax, the most distinguished of those who attempted to revive the cynical doctrines in the second century of the Christian era. He probably lived in the time of Hadrian, though the exact date of his birth and death is unknown. We owe our knowledge of his character to Lucian, who has painted it in the most glowing colours, representing him as almost perfectly wise and good. He adds that he has written an account of Demonax, "in order that the young who wish to apply to the study of philosophy may not be obliged to confine themselves to examples from antiquity, but may derive from his life also a model for their imitation". Of his friends the best known to us was Epictetus, who appears to have exercised considerable influence in the direction of his mind. By birth a Cyprian, he removed to Athens, and there joined the Cynical school, chiefly from respect to the memory of Diogenes, whom he considered the most faithful representative of the life and virtues of Socrates. He appears, however, to have been free from the austerity and moroseness of the sect, though he valued their indifference to external things; but we do not find that he contributed anything more to the cause of science than the original Cynics. His popularity at Athens was so great, that people vied with each other for the honour of offering him bread, and even boys shewed their respect by large donations of apples. He contracted some odium by the freedom with which he rebuked vice, and he was accused of neglecting sacrifice and the Eleusinian mysteries. To these charges he returned for answer, that "he did not sacrifice to Athena, because she could not want his offerings", and that "if the mysteries were bad, no one ought to be initiated; if good, they should be divulged to everybody" -the first of which replies is symptomatic of that vague kind of Deism which used so generally to conceal itself under an affectation of reverence for the popular gods. He never married, though Epictetus begged him to do so, but was met by the request that his wife might be one of Epictetus's daughters, whose own bachelor life was not very consistent with his urging the duty of giving birth to and educating children. This and other anecdotes of Demonax recorded by Lucian, shew him to have been an amiable, good-humoured man, leading probably a happy life, beloved and respected by those about him, and no doubt contrasting favourably with others who in those times called themselves votaries of those ancient systems which, as practical guides of life, were no longer necessary in a world to which a perfect revelation had now been given. Demonax died when nearly a hundred years old, and was buried with great magnificence, though he had declared it a matter of perfect indifference to him if his body were thrown to the dogs.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Dec 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Dioscorides, of Cyprus, a sceptic philosopher, and a pupil of Timon of Phlius. (Diog. Laert. ix. 114, 115.)
Euclus, (Eiklous), an ancient Cyprian soothsayer, who, according to Pausanias (x. 12.6, 14.3, 24.3), lived before tlhe time of Homer, who, as he predicted, was to spring from Cyprus. Pausanias quotes some lines professing to be the bard's prophecy of this event. The poem called the Cyprian Poem has been erroneously supposed to have been of his composition. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. i.)
Barnabas, one of the early inspired teachers of Christianity, was originally
named Joseph, and received the apellation Barnabas from the apostles. To the few
details in his life supplied by the New Testament various additions have been
made; none of which are certainly true, while many of them are evidently false.
Clemens Alexandrinus, Eusebius, and others, affirm, that Barnabas was one of the
seventy disciples sent forth by our Lord himself to preach the gospel. Baronius
and some others have maintained, that Barnabas not only preached the gospel in
Italy, but founded the church in Milan, of which they say he was the first bishop.
That this opinion rests on no sufficient evidence is ably shewn by the candid
Tillemont. (Memoires, &c. vol. i.) Some other fabulous stories concerning Barnabas
are related by Alexander, a monk of Cyprus, whose age is doubtful; by Theodorus
Lector; and in the Clementina, the Recognitions of Clemens, and the spurious Passio
Barnabae in Cypro, forged in the name of Mark.
Tertullian, in his treatise "de Pudicitia," ascribes the
Epistle to the Hebrews to Barnabas; but this opinion, though probably shared by
some of his contemporaries, is destitute of all probability.
A gospel ascribed to Barnabas is held in great reverence among the
Turks, and has been translated into Italian, Spanish, and English. It seems to
be the production of a Gnostic, disfigured by the interpolations of some Mohammedan
writer. (Fabric. Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti, Pars Tertia; White's Bampton
Lecturcs.)
Respecting the epistle attributed to Barnabas great diversity of opinion
has prevailed from the date of its publication by Hugh Menard, in 1645, down to
the present day. The external evidence is decidedly in favour of its genuineness;
for the epistle is ascribed to Barnabas, the coadjutor of Paul, no fewer than
seven times by Clemens Alexandrinus, and twice by Origen. Eusebius and Jerome,
however, though they held the epistle to be a genuine production of Barnabas,
yet did not admit it into the canon. When we come to examine the contents of the
epistle, we are at a loss to conceive how any serious believer in divine revelation
could ever think of ascribing a work full of such gross absurdities and blunders
to a teacher endowed with the gifts of the Spirit. It is not improbable that the
author's name was Barnabas, and that the Alexandrian fathers, finding its contents
so accordant with their system of allegorical interpretation, came very gladly
to the precipitate conclusion that it was composed by the associate of Paul.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Sep 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
St. Barnabas Barnabas (originally Joseph), styled an Apostle in Holy Scripture,
and, like St. Paul, ranked by the Church with the Twelve, though not one of them;
b. of Jewish parents in the Island of Cyprus about the beginning of the Christian
Era. A Levite, he naturally spent much time in Jerusalem, probably even before
the Crucifixion of Our Lord, and appears also to have settled there (where his
relatives, the family of Mark the Evangelist, likewise had their homes, Acts,
xii, 12) and to have owned land in its vicinity (iv, 36-37). A rather late tradition
recorded by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius says that he was one of the seventy
Disciples; but Acts (iv, 36-37) favours the opinion that he was converted to Christianity
shortly after Pentecost (about A.D. 29 or 30) and immediately sold his property
and devoted the proceeds to the Church. The Apostles, probably because of his
success as a preacher, for he is later placed first among the prophets and doctors
of Antioch (xiii, 1), surnamed him Barnabas, a name then interpreted as meaning
"son of exhortation" or "consolation". (The real etymology, however, is disputed.
See Encyl. Bibli., I, col. 484.) Though nothing is recorded of Barnabas for some
years, he evidently acquired during this period a high position in the Church.
When Saul the persecutor, later Paul the Apostle, made his first visit
(dated variously from A.D. 33 to 38) to Jerusalem after his conversion, the Church
there, remembering his former fierce spirit, was slow to believe in the reality
of his conversion. Barnabas stood sponsor for him and had him received by the
Apostles, as the Acts relate (ix, 27), though he saw only Peter and James, the
brother of the Lord, according to Paul himself (Gal., i, 18, 19). Saul went to
his house at Tarsus to live in obscurity for some years, while Barnabas appears
to have remained at Jerusalem. The event that brought them together again and
opened to both the door to their lifework was an indirect result of Saul's own
persecution. In the dispersion that followed Stephen's death, some Disciples from
Cyprus and Cyrene, obscure men, inaugurated the real mission of the Christian
Church by preaching to the Gentiles. They met with great success among the Greeks
at Antioch in Syria, reports of which coming o the ears of the Apostles, Barnabas
was sent thither by them to investigate the work of his countrymen. He saw in
the conversions effected the fruit of God's grace and, though a Jew, heartily
welcomed these first Gentile converts. His mind was opened at once to the possibility
of this immense field. It is a proof how deeply impressed Barnabas had been by
Paul that he thought of him immediately for this work, set out without delay for
distant Tarsus, and persuaded Paul to go to Antioch and begin the work of preaching.
This incident, shedding light on the character of each, shows it was no mere accident
that led them to the Gentile field. Together they laboured at Antioch for a whole
year and "taught a great multitude". Then, on the coming of famine, by which Jerusalem
was much afflicted, the offerings of the Disciples at Antioch were carried (about
A.D. 45) to the mother-church by Barnabas and Saul (Acts, xi). Their mission ended,
they returned to Antioch, bringing with them the cousin, or nephew of Barnabas
(Col., iv, 10), John Mark, the future Evangelist (Acts, xii, 25).
The time was now ripe, it was believed, for more systematic labours,
and the Church of Antioch felt inspired by the Holy Ghost to send out missionaries
to the Gentile world and to designate for the work Barnabas and Paul. They accordingly
departed, after the imposition of hands, with John Mark as helper. Cyprus, the
native land of Barnabas, was first evangelized, and then they crossed over to
Asia Minor. Here, at Perge in Pamphylia, the first stopping place, John Mark left
them, for what reason his friend St. Luke does not state, though Paul looked on
the act as desertion. The two Apostles, however, pushing into the interior of
a rather wild country, preached at Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, at Derbe,
and other cities. At every step they met with opposition and even violent persecution
from the Jews, who also incited the Gentiles against them. The most striking incident
of the journey was at Lystra, where the superstitious populace took Paul, who
had just cured a lame man, for Hermes (Mercury) "because he was the chief speaker",
and Barnabas for Jupiter, and were about to sacrifice a bull to them when prevented
by the Apostles. Mob-like, they were soon persuaded by the Jews to turn and attack
the Apostles and wounded St. Paul almost fatally. Despite opposition and persecution,
Paul and Barnabas made many converts on this journey and returned by the same
route to Perge, organizing churches, ordaining presbyters and placing them over
the faithful, so that they felt, on again reaching Antioch in Syria, that God
had "opened a door of faith to the Gentiles" (Acts, xiii, 13--xiv, 27; see article
Saint Paul).
Barnabas and Paul had been "for no small time" at Antioch, when they
were threatened with the undoing of their work and the stopping of its further
progress. Preachers came from Jerusalem with the gospel that circumcision was
necessary for salvation, even for the Gentiles. The Apostles of the Gentiles,
perceiving at once that this doctrine would be fatal to their work, went up to
Jerusalem to combat it; the older Apostles received them kindly and at what is
called the Council of Jerusalem (dated variously from A.D. 47 to 51) granted a
decision in their favour as well as a hearty commendation of their work (Acts,
xiv, 27--xv, 30; see articles Council of Jerusalem; Saint
Peter). On their return to Antioch, they resumed their preaching for a
short time. St. Peter came down and associated freely there with the Gentiles,
eating with them. This displeased some disciples of James; in their opinion, Peter's
act was unlawful, as against the Mosaic law. Upon their remonstrances, Peter yielded
apparently through fear of displeasing them, and refused to eat any longer with
the Gentiles. Barnabas followed his example. Paul considered that they "walked
not uprightly according to the truth of the gospel" and upbraided them before
the whole church (Gal., ii, 11-15). Paul seems to have carried his point. Shortly
afterwards, he and Barnabas decided to revisit their missions. Barnabas wished
to take John Mark along once more, but on account of the previous defection Paul
objected. A sharp contention ensuing, the Apostles agreed to separate. Paul was
probably somewhat influenced by the attitude recently taken by Barnabas, which
might prove a prejudice to their work. Barnabas sailed with John Mark to Cypress,
while Paul took Silas an revisited the churches of Asia Minor. It is believed
by some that the church of Antioch, by its God-speed to Paul, showed its approval
of his attitude; this inference, however, is not certain (Acts, xv, 35-41).
Little is known of the subsequent career of Barnabas. He was still
living and labouring as an Apostle in 56 or 57, when Paul wrote I Cor. (ix, 5,
6). from which we learn that he, too, like Paul, earned his own living, though
on an equality with other Apostles. The reference indicates also that the friendship
between the two was unimpaired. When Paul was a prisoner in Rome (61-63), John
Mark was attached to him as a disciple, which is regarded as an indication that
Barnabas was no longer living (Col., iv, 10). This seems probable. Various traditions
represent him as the first Bishop of Milan, as preaching at Alexandria and at
Rome, whose fourth (?) bishop, St. Clement, he is said to have converted, and
as having suffered martyrdom in Cyprus. The traditions are all late and untrustworthy.
With the exception of St. Paul and certain of the Twelve, Barnabas appears to
have been the most esteemed man of the first Christian generation. St. Luke, breaking
his habit of reserve, speaks of him with affection, "for he was a good man, full
of the Holy Ghost and of Faith". His title to glory comes not only from his kindliness
of heart, his personal sanctity, and his missionary labours, but also from his
readiness to lay aside his Jewish prejudices, in this anticipating certain of
the Twelve; from his large-hearted welcome of the Gentiles, and from his early
perception of Paul's worth, to which the Christian Church is indebted, in large
part at least, for its great Apostle. His tenderness towards John Mark seems to
have had its reward in the valuable services later rendered by him to the Church.
The feast of St. Barnabas is celebrated on 11 June. He is credited by Tertullian
(probably falsely) with the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the
so-called Epistle of Barnabas is ascribed to him by many Fathers.
John F. Fenlon, ed.
Transcribed by: Janet Grayson
This text is cited Oct 2005 from The Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent online edition URL below.
d. 4th century, feastday: March 4
d.c. 730, feastday: August 24
d. unknown, feastday: September 21 (Catholic).
d. 760, feastday: March 17
d. unknown, feastday: February 20 (Catholic). Martyrs who were executed in Cyprus, although they may have belonged to the Church in Egypt owing to a reference to them by Eusebius of Caesarea, who identifies them as part of the faithful in Alexandria
Georgius of Cyprus, the younger, afterwards Gregorius, has been said by some to
have been of Latin parents, but this is shown by Rubeis, editor of the life of
George, to be an error. He held the office of protapostolarius at Constantinople
at the time of the accession of Andronicus Palaeologus the elder (A. D. 1282).
He was a man of learning and eloquence, and the reviver, according to Nicephorus
Gregoras, of the long-disused Attic dialect. During the reign of Michiael Palaeologus,
father of Andronicus, he had been favourable to the union of the Greek and Latin
churches, which Michael had much at heart; and supplied the emperor with arguments
with which to press the patriarch of Constantinople (Joseph) and the other opponents
of the union; but on the accession of Andronicus, who was opposed to the union,
it is probable that George altered his views; for on the death of the patriarch
Joseph, Andronicus determined that George, though as yet a layman, should be appointed
to the office. The Greek church was at this time torn by dissension. Beside the
dispute about the procession of the Holy Spirit, there had been an extensive schism
occasioned by the deposition of Arsenius, patriarch of Constantinople early in
the reign of Michael (A. D. 1266). The emperor was anxious to heal these dissensions,
and possibly thought a layman more likely to assist him in so doing than a professed
theologian; and George was recommended to the office by his literary reputation.
The emperor, by tampering with some of the bishops, obtained his purpose; and
George, after being rapidly hurried through the successive stages of monk, reader,
deacon, and priest, was consecrated patriarch (April, A. D. 1283), and took the
name of Gregory. The Arsenians, however, refused to return to the church, unless
upon the testimony of heaven itself; and it was arranged at a synod or conference
at Adramyttium, apparently just after the consecration of Gregory, that they and
the party now predominant in the church (called Josephites from the late patriarch)
should each prepare a book in support of their respective views, and that the
two volumes should be submitted to the ordeal of fire. Both books, as might be
expected, were consumed; and the Arsenians regarding this as a token that heaven
was against them, submitted, and were at once led by the emperor in person, through
a violent snow storm, to receive the communion from the hands of the patriarch
Gregory. They soon, however, repented of their submission, and Gregory having
excommunicated the refractory, the whole party broke off from the church again.
This division was followed by troubles arising out of the controversy on the procession
of the Holy Spirit, aggravated by the harshness used under Gregory's influence
towards the ex-patriarch, Joannes or John Beccus or Veccus, a distinguished advocate
of the doctrine of the Latin church; and a book, which Gregory had been ordered
to prepare on the subject, and to the sentiments of which he had procured the
approval of the emperor and several of the superior clergy, excited such animadversion
and opposition, that, either in disgust or by constraint, he resigned the office
of patriarch, A. D. 1289, and retired to a monastery. He died in the course of
the following year, as many supposed, from grief and mortification. (Pachymer,
De Mich. Palacol. v. 12, De Andron. Paleol. i. 8, 14-22, 34-37, ii. 1-11 ; Niceph.
Greg. Hist. Rom. v. 2, vi. 1-4.)
The published works of George of Cyprus are as follows:
1. Ekthesis tou tomou tes pisteos kata tou Bekkou, Expositio Fidei adcersus Beccum
(seu Vceenm). This was the work which led to his troubles and consequent abdication.
2. Homologia, Confessio Fidei, delivered in consequence of the outcry against
the preceding work.
3. Apologia pros ten kata tou tomou mempsin ischurotate, Responsio validissima
ad Expositionis Censuram.
4. Pittakion: this is a letter to the emperor Andronicus, complaining of the wrong
done to him. These four pieces are given in Banduri's Imperium Orientale, ed.
Paris.
5. Enkomion eis ten Thalassan, Encomium Maris. Publshed by Bonaventura Vulcanius,
with a poem of Paulus Silentiarius, Leyden, 1591. These two pieces were published
both in a separate volume, and with the Peri Kosmou, De Mundo, of Aristotle. The
Encomiunm Maris has been since reprinted.
6. Proverbia, in alphabetical order, subjoined to the edition of the Proverbia
of Michael Apostolius by Pantinus, Leyden, 1619.
7. Logos eis ton hagion kai megalomartupa kai tropaiophoron Georgion, Oratio in
honored Sancti Georgii Magni Martyris ac Victoris. This encomium on St. George
of Cappadocia is printed in the Acta Sanctorum, April Vol. III. A Latin version
is given in the body of the volume, and the Greek original in the Appendix. Sententiae,
8vo., Col., 1536. This is given by Fabricius as a separate work; we suspect that
it is identical with the Proverbia, No. 6. 9. Encomium Georgii Logothetae Acropolitae;
an extract from this was prefixed to the edition of the Chronicon of Acropolita,
by Theodore Dousa, Leyden, 1614, and to the Paris edition.
10. Vita Georyii Cyprii. This Greek memoir of George was publishcd by J. F. Bernard
de Rubeis, a Dominican, within a Latin version, notes, and dissertations, Venice,,
1753, and was shown by the editor to be an autobiography.
Many other works of George of Cyprus remain in MS.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Dec 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Olympus (Olumpos, Strab. xiv. pp. 682, 683; Ptol. v. 14. § 5), a mountain range in the lofty island of Cyprus. On one of its eminences - breast-shaped (mastoeides) - was a temple to Aphrodite of the heights (akraia), into which women were not permitted to enter. (Strab. l. c.) This probably implies that all but the hierodulae were excluded. (Comp. Claudian, Nupt. Hon. et Mar. 49-85; Achill. Tat. vii. 13.) According to Pococke (Trav. vol. ii. p. 212; comp. Mariti, Viaggi, vol. i. p. 206), this part of the chain is now called Haghios Stavros, or Sta. Croce, from a convent dedicated to the Cross. (Engel, Kypros, vol. i. pp. 33-37).
This text is from: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. William Smith, LLD). Cited August 2004 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Dades (Daides, Ptol. v. 14. § 2), a promontory on the S. coast of
Cyprus, W. of Thronoi, which D'Anville has identified with Kiti. (Engel, Kypros,
vol. i. p. 99.)
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