Homer calls the island "of the hundred cities" (Il. 2.649). In the Odyssey, the poet mentions that there were ninety cities (Od. 19.174).
The native Cretans and one of the five tribes of the island (Od. 19.176).
One of the five tribes of the island (Od. 19.176).
Homer mentions that there were Dorians dwelling in the island of Crete (Od. 19.177).
Homer mentions that Pelasgians dwelt on the island of Crete (Od. 19.177).
Homer mentions that Achaeans dwelt in the island (Od. 19.175).
Cres (Kres), a son of Zeus by a nymph of mount Ida, from whom the island of Crete was believed to have derived its name (Steph. Byz. s. v. Krete; Paus. viii. 53.3). According to Diodorus (v. 64), Cres was an Eteocretan, that is, a Cretan autochthon.
Curetis, a name given to Crete, as being the residence of the Curetes (Ovid, Met.viii. 136).
The Greek personification of riches; born in Crete as the son of Demeter and her beloved Iasion or Iasius, whom Zeus, out of jealousy, killed with lightning. He was supposed to have been blinded by Zeus, so that he might distribute his gifts without choice. In Thebes and Athens he was represented as a child on the arm of Tyche and of Irene.
Demeter, bright goddess, was joined in sweet love with the hero Iasion in a thrice-ploughed fallow in the rich land of Crete, and bore Plutus, a kindly god who goes everywhere over land and the sea's wide back, and he makes rich the man who finds him and into whose hands he comes, bestowing great wealth upon him.
But when the bright goddess (Demeter) had taught them all, they went to Olympus to the gathering of the other gods. And there they dwell beside Zeus who delights in thunder, awful and reverend goddesses. Right blessed is he among men on earth whom they freely love: soon they do send Plutus as guest to his great house, Plutus who gives wealth to mortal men.
Iasion or Iasius (or Iasios). Son of Zeus and Electra, beloved by Demeter, who, in a thrice-ploughed field (tripolos), became by him the mother of Pluto or Plutus in Crete. He was slain by Zeus with a thunderbolt. From Iasion came the patronymic Iasides, a name given to Palinurus, as a descendant of Atlas.
Arbius (Arbios), a surname of Zeus, derived from mount Arbias in Crete, where he was worshipped. (Steph. Byz. s. v. Apbis.)
Hylatus (Hulatos), a surname of Apollo derived from the town of Hyle in Crete, which was sacred to him. (Lycophr. 448, with Tzetzes' note; Steph. Byz. s. v. Hgle; Eustath. ad Hom. )
Leads Cretan colony to Asia, marries Manto , daughter of Tiresias.
Oenopion sailed with a fleet from Crete to Chios, accompanied by his sons Talus, Euanthes, Melas, Salagus and Athamas. Carians too came to the island, in the reign of Oenopion, and Abantes from Euboea. Oenopion and his sons were succeeded by Amphiclus, who because of an oracle from Delphi came from Histiaea in Euboea.
The existence of a mount Ida is adduced to prove that Troy was colonized from Crete.
Agela (agele). An assembly of young men in Crete, who lived together
from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. An agele consisted
of the sons of the most noble citizens, who were usually under the jurisdiction
of the father of the youth who had been the means of collecting the agele. It
was the duty of this person, called agelates, to superintend the military and
gymnastic exercises of the youths (who were called agelastoi), to accompany them
to the chase, and to punish them when disobedient. He was accountable, however,
to the State, which supported the agelai at the public expense. All the members
of an agele were obliged to marry at the same time. In Sparta the youths entered
the agelai, usually called bouai, at the end of their seventh year.
As for their (Cretans) constitution, which is described by Ephorus,
it might suffice to tell in a cursory way its most important provisions. The lawgiver,
he says, seems to take it for granted that liberty is a state's greatest good,
for this alone makes property belong specifically to those who have acquired it,
whereas in a condition of slavery everything belongs to the rulers and not to
the ruled; but those who have liberty must guard it; now harmony ensues when dissension,
which is the result of greed and luxury, is removed; for when all citizens live
a self-restrained and simple life there arises neither envy nor arrogance nor
hatred towards those who are like them; and this is why the lawgiver commanded
the boys to attend the "Troops," as they are called, and the full grown men to
eat together at the public messes which they call the "Andreia," so that the poorer,
being fed at public expense, might be on an equality with the well-to-do; and
in order that courage, and not cowardice, might prevail, he commanded that from
boyhood they should grow up accustomed to arms and toils, so as to scorn heat,
cold, marches over rugged and steep roads, and blows received in gymnasiums or
regular battles; and that they should practise, not only archery, but also the
war-dance, which was invented and made known by the Curetes at first, and later,
also, by the man who arranged the dance that was named after him, I mean the Pyrrhic
dance, so that not even their sports were without a share in activities that were
useful for warfare; and likewise that they should use in their songs the Cretic
rhythms, which were very high pitched, and were invented by Thales, to whom they
ascribe, not only their Paeans and other local songs, but also many of their institutions;
and that they should use military dress and shoes; and that arms should be to
them the most valuable of gifts.
It is said by some writers, Ephorus continues, that most of the Cretan
institutions are Laconian, but the truth is that they were invented by the Cretans
and only perfected by the Spartans; and the Cretans, when their cities, and particularly
that of the Cnossians, were devastated, neglected military affairs; but some of
the institutions continued in use among the Lyctians, Gortynians, and certain
other small cities to a greater extent than among the Cnossians; in fact, the
institutions of the Lyctians are cited as evidence by those who represent the
Laconian as older; for, they argue, being colonists, they preserve the customs
of the mother city, since even on general grounds it is absurd to represent those
who are better organized and governed as emulators of their inferiors; but this
is not correct, Ephorus says, for, in the first place, one should not draw evidence
as to antiquity from the present state of things, for both peoples have undergone
a complete reversal; for instance, the Cretans in earlier times were masters of
the sea, and hence the proverb, "The Cretan does not know the sea," is applied
to those who pretend not to know what they do know, although now the Cretans have
lost their fleet; and, in the second place, it does not follow that, because some
of the cities in Crete were Spartan colonies, they were under compulsion to keep
to the Spartan institutions; at any rate, many colonial cities do not observe
their ancestral customs, and many, also, of those in Crete that are not colonial
have the same customs as the colonists.
Lycurgus the Spartan law-giver, Ephorus continues, was five generations
later than the Althaemenes who conducted the colony to Crete; for historians say
that Althaemenes was son of the Cissus who founded Argos about the same time when
Procles was establishing Sparta as metropolis; and Lycurgus, as is agreed by all,
was sixth in descent from Procles; and copies are not earlier than their models,
nor more recent things earlier than older things; not only the dancing which is
customary among the Lacedaemonians, but also the rhythms and paeans that are sung
according to law, and many other Spartan institutions, are called "Cretan" among
the Lacedaemonians, as though they originated in Crete; and some of the public
offices are not only administered in the same way as in Crete, but also have the
same names, as, for instance, the office of the "Gerontes," and that of the "Hippeis"
(except that the "Hippeis" in Crete actually possessed horses, and from this fact
it is inferred that the office of the "Hippeis" in Crete is older, for they preserve
the true meaning of the appellation, whereas the Lacedaemonian "Hippeis" do not
keep horses); but though the Ephors have the same functions as the Cretan Cosmi,
they have been named differently; and the public messes are, even today, still
called "Andreia" among the Cretans, but among the Spartans they ceased to be called
by the same name as in earlier times; at any rate, the following is found in Alcman:
In feasts and festive gatherings, amongst the guests who partake of the Andreia,
'tis meet to begin the paean.
It is said by the Cretans, Ephorus continues, that Lycurgus came to
them for the following reason: Polydectes was the elder brother of Lycurgus; when
he died he left his wife pregnant; now for a time Lycurgus reigned in his brother's
place, but when a child was born he became the child's guardian, since the office
of king descended to the child, but some man, railing at Lycurgus, said that he
knew for sure that Lycurgus would be king; and Lycurgus, suspecting that in consequence
of such talk he himself might be falsely accused of plotting against the child,
and fearing that, if by any chance the child should die, he himself might be blamed
for it by his enemies, sailed away to Crete; this, then, is said to be the cause
of his sojourn in Crete; and when he arrived he associated with Thales, a melic
poet and an expert in lawgiving; and after learning from him the manner in which
both Rhadamanthys in earlier times and Minos in later times published their laws
to men as from Zeus, and after sojourning in Egypt also and learning among other
things their institutions, and, according to some writers, after meeting Homer,
who was living in Chios, he sailed back to his homeland, and found his brother's
son, Charilaus the son of Polydectes, reigning as king; and then he set out to
frame the laws, making visits to the god at Delphi, and bringing thence the god's
decrees, just as Minos and his house had brought their ordinances from the cave
of Zeus, most of his being similar to theirs.
The following are the most important provisions in the Cretan institutions
as stated by Ephorus. In Crete all those who are selected out of the "Troop" of
boys at the same time are forced to marry at the same time, although they do not
take the girls whom they have married to their own homes immediately, but as soon
as the girls are qualified to manage the affairs of the house. A girl's dower,
if she has brothers, is half of the brother's portion. The children must learn,
not only their letters, but also the songs prescribed in the laws and certain
forms of music. Now those who are still younger are taken to the public messes,
the "Andreia"; and they sit together on the ground as they eat their food, clad
in shabby garments, the same both winter and summer, and they also wait on the
men as well as on themselves. And those who eat together at the same mess join
battle both with one another and with those from different messes. A boy director
presides over each mess. But the older boys are taken to the "Troops"; and the
most conspicuous and influential of the boys assemble the "Troops," each collecting
as many boys as he possibly can; the leader of each "Troop" is generally the father
of the assembler, and he has authority to lead them forth to hunt and to run races,
and to punish anyone who is disobedient; and they are fed at public expense; and
on certain appointed days "Troop" contends with "Troop," marching rhythmically
into battle, to the tune of flute and lyre, as is their custom in actual war;
and they actually bear marks of58 the blows received, some inflicted by the hand,
others by iron weapons.
They have a peculiar custom in regard to love affairs, for they win
the objects of their love, not by persuasion, but by abduction; the lover tells
the friends of the boy three or four days beforehand that he is going to make
the abduction; but for the friends to conceal the boy, or not to let him go forth
by the appointed road, is indeed a most disgraceful thing, a confession, as it
were, that the boy is unworthy to obtain such a lover; and when they meet, if
the abductor is the boy's equal or superior in rank or other respects, the friends
pursue him and lay hold of him, though only in a very gentle way, thus satisfying
the custom; and after that they cheerfully turn the boy over to him to lead away;
if, however, the abductor is unworthy, they take the boy away from him. And the
pursuit does not end until the boy is taken to the "Andreium" of his abductor.
They regard as a worthy object of love, not the boy who is exceptionally handsome,
but the boy who is exceptionally manly and decorous. After giving the boy presents,
the abductor takes him away to any place in the country he wishes; and those who
were present at the abduction follow after them, and after feasting and hunting
with them for two months (for it is not permitted to detain the boy for a longer
time), they return to the city. The boy is released after receiving as presents
a military habit, an ox, and a drinking-cup (these are the gifts required by law),
and other things so numerous and costly that the friends, on account of the number
of the expenses, make contributions thereto. Now the boy sacrifices the ox to
Zeus and feasts those who returned with him; and then he makes known the facts
about his intimacy with his lover, whether, perchance, it has pleased him or not,
the law allowing him this privilege in order that, if any force was applied to
him at the time of the abduction, he might be able at this feast to avenge himself
and be rid of the lover. It is disgraceful for those who are handsome in appearance
or descendants of illustrious ancestors to fail to obtain lovers, the presumption
being that their character is responsible for such a fate. But the parastathentes
(for thus they call those who have been abducted) receive honors; for in both
the dances and the races they have the positions of highest honor, and are allowed
to dress in better clothes than the rest, that is, in the habit given them by
their lovers; and not then only, but even after they have grown to manhood, they
wear a distinctive dress, which is intended to make known the fact that each wearer
has become "kleinos," for they call the loved one "kleinos" and the lover "philetor."
So much for their customs in regard to love affairs.
The Cretans choose ten Archons. Concerning the matters of greatest
importance they use as counsellors the "Gerontes," as they are called. Those who
have been thought worthy to hold the office of the "Cosmi" and are otherwise adjudged
men of approved worth are appointed members of this Council. I have assumed that
the constitution of the Cretans is worthy of description both on account of its
peculiar character and on account of its fame. Not many, however, of these institutions
endure, but the administration of affairs is carried on mostly by means of the
decrees of the Romans, as is also the case in the other provinces.
This extract is from: The Geography of Strabo (ed. H. L. Jones, 1924), Cambridge. Harvard University Press. Cited Nov 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains comments & interesting hyperlinks.
Gerusia. (gerousia; a council of old men, gerontes)... They had a similar position
in the Cretan constitution, according to which only the members of the highest
magistracy, called the kosmoi, or regulators, could enter the council, and that
only after a blameless term of administration.
Gela was founded by Antiphemus from Rhodes and Entimus from Crete, who joined in leading a colony thither, in the forty-fifth year after the foundation of Syracuse. The town took its name from the river Gelas, the place where the citadel now stands, and which was first fortified, being called Lindii. The institutions which they adopted were Dorian. Near one hundred and eight years after the foundation of Gela, the Geloans founded Acragas (Agrigentum ), so called from the river of that name, and made Aristonous and Pystilus their founders; giving their own institutions to the colony.
62 vases listed
Krete; in Italian, Candia; in Turkish, Kirit. One of the largest
islands of the Mediterranean Sea, at the south of all the Cyclades. Its name is
derived by some from the Curetes, who are said to have been its first inhabitants;
by others, from the nymph Crete, daughter of Hesperus; and by others, from Cres,
a son of Zeus and the nymph Idaea. It is also designated among the poets and mythological
writers by the several appellations of Aeria, Doliche, Idaea, and Telchinia. According
to Herodotus, this great island remained in the possession of various barbarous
nations till the time of Minos, son of Europa, who, having expelled his brother
Sarpedon, became the sole sovereign of the country. These early inhabitants are
generally supposed to be the Eteocretes of Homer, who clearly distinguishes them
from the Grecian colonists subsequently settled there.
Minos, according to the concurrent testimony of antiquity,
first gave laws to the Cretans, and, having conquered the pirates who infested
the Aegean Sea, established a powerful navy. In the Trojan War, Idomeneus, sovereign
of Crete, led its forces to the war in eighty vessels, a number little inferior
to that commanded by Agamemnon himself. According to the traditions which Vergil
has followed, Idomeneus was afterwards driven from his throne by faction, and
compelled to sail to Iapygia, where he founded the town of Salernum. At this period
the island appears to have been inhabited by a mixed population of Greeks and
barbarians. Homer enumerates the former under the names of Achaei, Dorians, surnamed
Trichaices, and Pelasgi. The latter, who were the most ancient, are said to have
come from Thessaly, under the conduct of Teutamus, posterior to the great Pelasgic
emigration into Italy. The Dorians are reported to have established themselves
in Crete, under the command of Althemenes of Argos, after the death of Codrus
and the foundation of Megara. In Crete was the famous labyrinth whose construction
was ascribed to Daedalus, and about which so many legends cluster.
After the Trojan War and the expulsion of Idomeneus, the principal
cities of Crete formed themselves into several republics, for the most part independent,
while others were connected by federal ties. These, though not exempted from the
dissensions which so universally distracted the Grecian States, maintained for
a long time a considerable degree of prosperity, owing to the good system of laws
and education which had been so early instituted throughout the island by the
decrees of Minos. The Cretan code was supposed by many of the best-informed writers
of antiquity to have furnished Lycurgus with the model of his most salutary regulations.
It was founded, according to Ephorus, cited by Strabo, on the just basis of liberty
and an equality of rights; and its great aim was to promote social harmony and
peace by enforcing temperance and frugality. On this principle, the Cretan youths
were divided into classes called Agelae, and all met at the Andreia, or public
meals. Like the Spartans, they were early trained to the use of arms, and inured
to sustain the extremes of heat and cold, and undergo the severest exercise; they
were also compelled to learn their letters and certain pieces of music. The chief
magistrates, called Cosmi (kosmoi), were ten in number and elected annually. The
Gerontes constituted the council of the nation, and were selected from those who
were thought worthy of holding the office of Cosmus. There was also an equestrian
order, who were bound to keep horses at their own expense. But though the Cretan
laws resembled the Spartan institutions in so many important points, there were
some striking features which distinguished the legislative enactments of the two
countries. One of these was that the Lacedaemonians were subject to a strict agrarian
law, whereas the Cretans were under no restraint as to the accumulation of moneyed
or landed property; another, that the Cretan republics were for the most part
democratic, whereas the Spartan was decidedly aristocratic. Herodotus informs
us that the Cretans were deterred by the unfavourable response of the Pythian
oracle from contributing forces to the Grecian armament assembled to resist the
Persians. In the Peloponnesian War incidental mention is made of some Cretan cities
as allied with Athens or Sparta, but the island does not appear to have espoused
collectively the cause of either of the belligerent parties. The Cretan soldiers
were held in great estimation as light troops and archers, and readily offered
their services for hire to such States, whether Greek or barbarian, as needed
them. In the time of Polybius the Cretans had much degenerated from their ancient
character, for he charges them repeatedly with the grossest immorality and the
most hateful vices. We know also with what severity they are reproved by St. Paul,
in the words of one of their own poets, Epimenides, Kretes aei pseustai, kaka
theria, gasteres argai.
The chief cities of Crete were Cnossus, Cydonia, Gortyna,
and Lyctus, all of which see. The Romans did not interfere with the affairs of
Crete before the war with Antiochus, when Q. Fabius Labeo crossed over into the
island from Asia Minor, under pretence of claiming certain Roman captives who
were detained there. Several years after, the island was invaded by a Roman army
commanded by M. Antonius, under the pretence that the Cretans had secretly favoured
the cause of Mithridates; but Florus more candidly avows that the desire of conquest
was the real motive which led to this attack. The enterprise, however, having
failed, the subjugation of the island was not effected till some years later by
Metellus, who, from his success, obtained the agnomen of Creticus. It was then
(B.C. 67) annexed to the Roman Empire, and formed, together with Cyrenaica, one
of its numerous provinces, being governed by the same proconsul. Crete forms an
irregular parallelogram, of which the western side faces Sicily, while the eastern
looks towards Cyprus; on the north it is washed by the Mare Creticum, and on the
south by the Libyan Sea, which intervenes between the island and the opposite
coast of Cyrene. Mount Ida, which surpasses all the other summits in elevation,
rises in the centre of the island; its base occupies a circumference of nearly
600 stadia. To the west it is connected with another chain, called the White Mountains
(Leuka ore), and to the east its prolongation forms the ridge anciently known
by the name of Dicte.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
The abundant finds from Minoan Crete provide information on the changes
in Minoan society in each Minoan period. Settlements, cemeteries and works of
art reveal the rapid evolution of a geographically confined society which was
not only receptive to foreign influence, but also managed its resources appropriately
and developed a great civilization.
During the Early Minoan period (3000-2000 BC) for the first time collective
works, the technical specialisation of social groups and social ranking appear
as a result of foreign commercial relations and the successful exploitation of
raw materials (most likely by specific social groups). During this period social
consciousness was reinforced and a ruling class was established, leading to the
foundation of the palaces.
During the Middle Minoan period (2000-1550 BC), along with the appearance
of the palaces (which apart from being a distinct settlement system were also
the axis of central power) Minoan society underwent radical changes and appears
organized and centralized. The internal organization of the palatial centres demanded
the clearly defined social classes in a clear hierarchy. The character of the
palace administration allows the definition of this society as theocratic since
the concentration of power (which was certainly exercised by the palaces) was
attended by a dominant religion. However, the boundaries between politics and
religious power still remain vague since conclusions for the most part of the
Palatial period are based on archaeological finds unsupported by written evidence.
Moreover, although the mythological tradition of the Cretan King Minos influenced
the interpretation of archaeological evidence for a long time, the latest research
has indicated problems in identifying the leading figures in Minoan Crete.
The Mycenaeans introduced an administrative organization similar to
that of Mycenaean Greece, including the archive organization system and the creation
of certain new military institutions as proved by the luxurious warrior graves.
During the Post-Palatial period (1400-1050 BC) social developments that usually
result from the enfeeblement of central power took place. Power is now exercised
by several leaders who probably lived in rural villas and controlled smaller regions.
At the end of the Bronze Age power is exercised on a limited geographic
scale whereas the specialized groups which served the government machinery have
disappeared. The lack of central power leads to an increasing participation of
the urban centres in power. Moreover, the phenomenon of administrative independence
affecting religious organization is observable. The choice of new settlement locations
in naturally fortified regions indicates insecurity on the part of the inhabitants,
most likely attributable to a waning central power.
Throughout the Minoan period there is no defense system comparable
to the citadels of the Bronze Age in the Aegean and mainland Greece, which indicates
that the security of the inhabitants was ensured for most of the Bronze Age by
the so-called Minoan Peace.
This extract is cited October 2004 from the Foundation of the
Hellenic World URL below, which contains images
Krete: Eth. and adj. Kres, Kresse, Kretaios, Kreteus, Kreteios, Kreteos,
Kretaieus, Kresios, Kretis, Kresis, Kretikos, Cretaeus, Cretanus, Cretensis, Creticus,
Cretis: Kriti; the common European name Candia is unknown in the island; the Saracenic
Khandax Megalo-Kastron became with the Venetian writers Candia; the word for a
long time denoted only the principal city of the island, which retained its ancient
name in the chroniclers, and in Dante (Inferno, xiv. 94).
I. Situation and Extent. Crete, an island situated in the Aegean basin
of the Mediterranean sea, is described by Strabo (x. p. 474) as lying between
Cyrenaica and that part of Hellas which extends from Sunium to Laconia, and parallel
in its length from W. to E. to these two points. The words mechri Lakonikes may
be understood either of Malea or Taenarum; it is probable that this geographer
extended Crete as far as Taenarum, as from other passages in his work (ii. p.
124, viii. p. 863), it would appear that he considered it and the W. points of
Crete as under the same meridian. It is still more difficult to understand the
position assigned to Crete with regard to Cyrenaica (xvii. p. 838). Strabo is
far nearer the truth, though contradicting his former statements, where he makes
Cimarus the NW. promontory of Crete 700 stadia from Malea (x. p. 174), and Cape
Sammonium 1000 stadia from Rhodes (ii. p. 106), which was one of the best-ascer-tained
points in ancient geography.
The whole circumference of the island was estimated by Artemidorus
at 4100 stadia; but Sosicrates, whose description was most accurate, computed
the length at more than 2300 stadia, and the circumference at more than 5000 stadia
(Strab. x. p. 476). Hieronymus (l. c.) in reckoning the length alone at 2000 stadia
far exceeded Artemidorus. In Pliny (iv. 20) the extent of Crete in length was
about 270 M. P. and nearly 539 M. P. in circuit. The broadest part (400 stadia)
was in the middle, between the promontories of Dium and Matalum; the narrowest
(60 stadia) further E., between Minoa and Hierapytna. The W. coast was 200 stadia
broad, but towards the E. between Amphimalla and Phoenix contracted to 100 stadia.
(Comp. Strab. p. 475.)
II. Structure and Natural Features. The interior was very mountainous,
woody, and intersected by fertile valleys. The whole island may be considered
as a prolongation of that mountain chain which breasts the waters at Cape Malea,
with the island of Cythera interposed. The geological formation resembles that
of the Hellenic peninsula; from the traces of the action of the sea upon the cliffs,
especially at the W. end, it seems that the island has been pushed up from its
foundations by powerful subterranean forces, which were in operation at very remote
times. (Journ. Geog. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 277.)
A continuous mass of high-land runs through its whole length, about
the middle of which Mt. Ida, composed of a congeries of hills, terminating in
three lofty peaks, rises to the height of 7674 feet: the base occupied a circumference
of nearly 600 stadia; to the W. it was connected with a chain called Leuka ore,
or the White Mountains, whose snow-clad summits and bold and beautiful outlines
extend over a range of 300 stadia (Strab. p. 475). The prolongation to the E.
formed the ridge of Dicte (Dikte, Strab. p. 478). It is curious that, though tradition
spoke of those ancient workers in iron and bronze-the Idaean Dactyls, no traces
of mining operations have been found.
The island had but one lake (Limne Koresia); the drainage is carried
off by several rivers, mostly summer torrents, which are dried up during the summer
season; but the number and copiousness of the springs give the country a very
different aspect to the parched tracts of continental Greece.
Mt. Ida, connected in ancient story with metallurgy, was, as its name
implied, covered with wood, which was extensively used in forging and smelting.
The forests could boast of the fruit-bearing poplar (Theophrast. H. P. iii. 5);
the evergreen platane (H. P. i. 15; Varr. de Re Rust. i. 7; Plin. xii. 1) trees,
which it need hardly be said can no longer be found; the cypress (Theophrast.
H. P. ii. 2), palm (H. P. ii. 8; Plin. xiii. 4), and cedar (Plin. xvi. 39; Vitruv.
ii. 9). According to Pliny (xxv. 8; comp. Theophrast. H. P. ix. 16), everything
grew better in Crete than elsewhere; among the medicinal herbs for which it was
famed was the dictamnon so celebrated among physicians,naturalists (Theophrast.
l. c.; Plin. l. c.), and poets (Virg. Aen. xii. 412; comp. Tasso, Gerusalem. Lib.
xi. 72). The ancients frequently speak of the Cretan wines (Aelian. V. H. xii.
31; Athen. x. p. 440; Plin. xiv. 9). Among these the passum, or raisin wine, was
the most highly prized (Mart. xiii. 106; Juv. xiv. 270). Its honey played a conspicuous
part in the myths concerning Zeus (Diod. v. 70; Callim. Hym. in Jov. 50). The
island was free from all wild beasts and noxious animals (Aelian, N. A. iii. 32;
Plin. viii. 83), a blessing which it owed to Heracles (Diod. iv. 17); but the
Cretan dogs could vie with the hounds of Sparta (Aelian. N.A. iii. 2); and the
Cretan Agrimi, or real wild goat, is the supposed origin of all our domestic varieties.
III. History. The cycle of myths connected with Minos and his family threw
a splendour over Crete, to which its estrangement from the rest of Greece during
the historic period presents a great contrast. The lying Cretans dared to show,
not only the birthplace, but also the tomb of the father of gods and men (Callim.
Hym in Jov. 8), and the Dorian invaders made Crete the head-quarters of the worship
of Apollo (Muller, Dor. vol. i. p. 226, trans.). Since the Grecian islands formed,
from the earliest times, stepping stones by which the migratory population of
Europe and Asia have crossed over to either continent, it has been assumed that
Aegypt, Phoenicia, and Phrygia founded cities in Crete, and contributed new arts
and knowledge to the island. No proof of Aegyptian colonisation can be adduced;
and from the national character, it is probable that settlers of pure Aegyptian
blood never crossed the Aegean. Traces of Phoenician settlements may undoubtedly
be pointed out; and by what cannot be called more than an ingenious conjecture,
the mythical genealogy of Minos has been construed to denote a combination of
the orgiastic worship of Zeus indigenous among the Eteocretes, with the worship
of the moon imported from Phoenicia, and signified by the names Europe, Pasiphae,
and Ariadne. There is an evident analogy between the religion of Crete and Phrygia;
and the legendary Curetes and Idaean Dactyls are connected, on the one hand with
the orgiastic worship, and on the other with the arts of Phrygia. But no historical
use can be made of these scanty and uncertain notices, or of the Minos of the
poets and logographers with his contradictory and romantic attributes. The Dorians
first appear in Crete during the heroic period; the Homeric poems mention different
languages and different races of men-Eteocretes, Cydonians, thrice divided Dorians,
Achaeans, and Pelasgians, as all co-existing in the island, which they describe
to be populous, and to contain ninety cities (Od. xix. 174). These Dorian mountaineers
converted into mariners-the Norman sea-kings of Greece-must therefore have come
to Crete at a period, according to the received legendary chronology, long before
the return of the Heraclidae. In the same poems they appear as hardy and daring
corsairs; and this characteristic gave rise to that naval supremacy which was
assigned by Herodotus, Thucydides, and Aristotle, to the traditionary Minos and
his Cretan subjects.
Theophrastus (De Ventis, v. 13. p. 762, ed. Schneidewin) stated that
the deserted sites of Cretan villages, which according to the primitive Greek
practice the inhabitants had occupied in the central and mountain regions, were
to be seen in his time. The social fabric which the ancients found in Crete so
nearly resembled that of Sparta, that they were in doubt whether it should be
considered as the archetype or copy. (Arist. Pol. ii. 7; Strab. p. 482.) But the
analogy between the institutions of the Cretan communities and Sparta, is one
rather of form than of spirit. The most remarkable resemblance consisted in the
custom of the public messes, Syssitia, while there is a marked difference in the
want of that rigid private training and military discipline which characterized
the Spartan government. The distinction between the condition of the Dorian freeman
and the serf comes out vividly in the drinking song of the Cretan Hybrias (Athen.
xv. p. 695); but there was only one stage of inferiority, as the Cretan Perioecus
had no Helots below him. Polybius (vi. 45-48), who has expressed his surprise
how the best-informed ancient authors, Plato, Xenophon, Ephorus, and Callisthenes,
could compare the Cretan polity to the old Lacedaemonian, as the main features
were so different, among other divergencies especially dwelt upon the inequality
of property in Crete, with that fancied equality which he believed was secured
by the legislation of Lycurgus. It is hazardous to determine the amount of credit
to be given to the minute descriptions which the ancient authors have made, of
the machinery by which the nicely balanced constitution of early Crete was regulated.
Their statements as to the civil virtues and the public education of the Cretans,
can be nothing but the mere declamation of after ages, seeking to contrast in
a rhetorical manner the virtues of the good old times with modern decay and degradation.
The generous friendship of the heroic ages which was singularly regulated
by the law (Ephorus ap. Strab. p. 483), had degenerated into a frightful licence
(Arist. Pot. ii. 10); and as early as about B.C. 600, the Cretan stood self-condemned
as an habitual liar, an evil beast, and an indolent glutton, if St. Paul in his
Epistle to Titus (i. 12) alludes to Epimenides. (Comp. Polyb. iv. 47, 53, vi.
46.)
The island, which collectively stood aloof both in the Persian and Peloponnesian
Wars, consisted of a number of independent towns, who coined their own money,
had a senate and public assembly (Bockh, Inscr. Gr. vol. ii. 2554-2612), were
at constant feud with each other, but when assailed by foreign enemies laid aside
their private quarrels, in defence of their common country, to which they gave
the affectionate appellation of mother-land (metris), a word peculiar to the Cretans.
(Plat. Rep. ix. p. 575; Aelian, V. H. xiii. 38, N. A. xvii. 35, 40; Synes. Ep.
xciv.). Hence the well-known Syncretism (Plut. de Frat. Am. § 19, p. 490; Etym.
Mag. s. v. sunkretisai). Afterwards centres of states were formed by Cnossus,
Gortyna, and Cydonia and after the decay of the latter, Lycyus The first two had
a hegemony, and were generally hostile to each other.
These internal disorders had become so violent that they were under
the necessity of summoning Philip IV. of Macedon as a mediator, whose command
was all-powerful (prostates, Polyb. vii. 12). It would seem, however, that the
effects of his intervention had ceased before the Roman war. (Niebuhr, Lect. on
Anc. Hist. vol. iii. p. 366.) Finally, in B.C. 67, Crete was taken by Q. Metellus
Creticus, after more than one unsuccessful attempt by other commanders during
a lingering war, the history of which is fully given in Drumann (Geschich. Rom.
vol. ii. pp. 51, foIl.). It was annexed to Cyrene, and became a Roman province
(Vell. ii. 34, 38; Justin. xxxix. 5; Flor. iii. 7; Eutrop. vi. 11; Dion Cass.
xxxvi. 2). In the division of the provinces under Augustus, Creta-Cyrene, or Creta
et Cyrene (Orelli, Inscr. n. 3658), became a senatorial province (Dion Cass. lii.
12), under the government of a propraetor (Strab. p. 840) with the title of proconsul
(Orelli, l.c.), with a legatus (Dion Cass. lvii. 14) and a quaestor, or perhaps
two as in Sicily (Suet. Vesp. 2). Under Constantine, a division took place (Zosim.
ii. 32); as Crete was placed under a Consularis (Hierocl.), and Cyrene, now Libya
Superior, under a praeses. (Marquardt, Handbuch der Rom. Alt. p. 222.) In A.D.
823, the Arabs wrested it from the Lower Empire (Script. post Theophrast. pp.
1-162; Cedren. Hist. Comp. p. 506). In A.D. 961, the island after a memorable
siege of ten months by Nicephorus Phocas, the great domestic or general of the
East, once more submitted to the Greek rule (Zonar. ii. p. 194). After the taking
of Constantinople by the Franks, Baldwin I. gave it to Boniface, Marquess of Montferrat,
who sold it, in A.D. 1204, to the Venetians, and it became the first of the three
subject kingdoms whose flags waved over the square of San Marco. The Cretan soldiers
had a high reputation as light troops and archers, and served as mercenaries both
in Greek and Barbarian armies (Thuc. vii. 57; Xen. Anab. iii. 3. 6; Polyb. iv.
8, v. 14; Justin. xxxv. 2). Fashions change but little in the East; Mr. Pashley
(Trav. vol. i. p. 245) has detected in the games and dances of modern Crete, the
tumblers (Hom. Il. xviii. 604) and the old cyclic chorus of three thousand years
ago. (Il. xviii. 590; Athen. v. p. 81.) The dress of the peasant continues to
resemble that of his ancestors; he still wears the boots (hupodemata), as described
by Galen (Com. in Hippocrat. de Art. iv. 14, vol. xviii. p. 682, ed. Kuhn), and
the short cloak, Kretikon, mentioned by Eupolis (ap. Phot. Lex. vol. i. p. 178),
and Aristophanes (Thesm. 730). It is doubtful whether there are any genuine autonomous
coins of Crete; several of the Imperial period exist, with the epigraph Koinon
Kreton, and types referring to the legendary history of the island.
IV. Itinerary and Towns. Crete, in its flourishing days, had a hundred
cities, as narrated by Stephanus, Ptolemy, Strabo, and other authors:- Centum
urbes habitant magnas uberrima regna. Virg. Aen. iii. 106. (Comp. Hom. Il. ii.
649; Hor. Carm. iii. 27.34, Ep. lx. 29.) These cities were destroyed by the Romans
under Q. Metellus, but ruins belonging to many of them may still be traced. The
ancients have left several itineraries. The Stadiasmus of the Mediterranean, starting
from Sammonium, made a periplus of the island, commencing on the S. coast. Ptolemy
began at Corycus, and travelled in the contrary direction, also making a complete
tour of the coast; after which, starting again from the W. extremity of the island,
he has enumerated several inland cities as far as Lyctus. Pliny began at nearly
the same place as Ptolemy, but travelled in the contrary direction, till he arrived
at Hierapolis; after which he made mention of several inland towns at random.
Scylax commenced at the W. coast, and proceeded to the E., grouping inland and
coast towns together. Hierocles set out from Gortyna eastward by Hierapytna, nearly
completing the tour of the coast; while the Peutinger Table, commencing at Tharrus,
pursued the opposite route, with occasional deviations. In the library of the
Marciana at Venice are several reports addressed to the Serene Republic by the
Proveditori of Candia, some of which contain notices at more or less length of
its antiquities. One of these, a MS. of the 16th century, La Descrizione dell'
Isola di Candia, has been translated in the Museum of Classical Antiquities, vol.
ii. p. 263, and contains much interesting and valuable matter. In the same paper
will be found a very accurate map of Crete, constructed on the outline of the
French map of Dumas, Gauttier, and Lassie, 1825, corrected at the E. and W. extremities
from the hydrographic charts of the Admiralty, executed from recent surveys by
Captains Graves and Spratt. Crete has been fortunate in the amount of attention
which has been paid to it. The diligent and laborious Meursius (Creta, Cyprus,
Rhodus, Amstel. 1675) has collected everything which the ancients have written
connected with the island. Hock (Kreta, Goittingen, 1829, 3 vols.) is a writer
of great merit, and has given a full account of the mythological history of Crete,
in which much curious information is found. Mr. Pashley (Travels in Crete, London,
1837, 2 vols.) is a traveller of the same stamp as Colonel Leake, and has illustrated
the geography of the island by his own personal observation and sound judgment.
Bishop Thirlwall (Hist. of Greece, vol. i. p. 283, foll.) has given a very vivid
outline of the Cretan institutions as they were conceived to have existed by Aristotle,
Strabo, and others...
This text is from: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. William Smith, LLD). Cited June 2004 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Later on there (at Olympia) came (they say ) from Crete Clymenus,
the son of Cardys, about fifty years after the flood came upon the Greeks in the
time of Deucalion. He was descended from Heracles of Ida; he held the games at
Olympia and set up an altar in honor of Heracles, his ancestor, and the other
Curetes, giving to Heracles the surname of Parastates (Assistant ). And Endymion,
the son of Aethlius, deposed Clymenus, and set his sons a race in Olympia with
the kingdom as the prize. And about a generation later than Endymion, Pelops held
the games in honor of Olympian Zeus in a more splendid manner than any of his
predecessors. (Paus. 5.8.1)
There (at Olympia) are also altars of all gods, and of Hera surnamed
Olympian, this too being made of ashes. They say that it was dedicated by Clymenus.(Paus.
5.14.8)
In this district (of Pisa at Elia) is a hill rising to a sharp peak,
on which are the ruins of the city of Phrixa, as well as a temple of Athena surnamed
Cydonian. This temple is not entire, but the altar is still there. The sanctuary
was founded for the goddess, they say, by Clymenus, a descendant of Idaean Heracles,
and he came from Cydonia in Crete and from the river Jardanus. The Eleans say
that Pelops too sacrificed to Cydonian Athena before he set about his contest
with Oenomaus. (Paus. 6.21.6)
This extract is from: Pausanias. Description of Greece (ed. W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., & H.A. Ormerod, 1918). Cited Nov 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains comments & interesting hyperlinks.
-488
-456
-448
-396
Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans.
Sculptors, pupils or sons of Daedalus (Paus). The very first men to become famous as marble sculptors were Dipoenus and Scyllis, born in Crete while the Median empire still existed and before Cyrus began to rule in Persia. This was approximately in the 50th Olympiad [580-577]. They moved to Sicyon, which had long been the home of all such industries.
List of works, referred by ancients:
- Apollo, Artemis, Herakles, and Athena, at Sikyon
- Athena, at Kleonai
- The Dioskouroi, their wives and children, at Argos; ebony and ivory
- Herakles, at Tiryns
- Herakles, in Lydia, plundered by Cyrus (547/6)
- Athena, at Lindos, later in Constantinople (from ca. A.D. 330)
Dipoenus and Scyllis, (Dipoinos kai Skullis), very ancient Greek statuaries, who are always mentioned together. They belonged to the style of art called Daedalian. Pausanias says that they were disciples of Daedalus, and, according to some, his sons. (ii. 15.1, iii. 17.6.) There is, however, no doubt that they were real persons; but they lived near the end, instead of the beginning, of the period of the Daedalids. Pliny says that they were born in Crete, during the time of the Median empire, and before the reign of Cyrus, about the 50th Olympiad (B. C. 580: the accession of Cyrus was in B. C. 559). From Crete they went to Sicyon, which was for a long time the chief seat of Grecian art. There they were employed on some statues of the gods, but before these statues were finished, the artists, complaining of some wrong, betook themselves to the Aetolians. The Sicyonians were immediately attacked by a famine and drought, which, they were informed by the Delphic oracle, would only be removed when Dipoenus and Scyllis should finish the statues of the gods, which they were induced to do by great rewards and favours. The statues were those of Apollo, Artemis, Heracles, and Athena (Plin. H. N. xxxvi. 4.§ 1), whence it seems likely that the whole group represented the seizure of the tripod, like that of Amyclaeus. Pliny adds that Ambracia, Argos, and Cleonae, were full of the works of Dipoenus. (§ 2.) He also says (§§ 1, 2), that these artists were the first who were celebrated for sculpturing in marble, and that they used the white marble of Paros. Pausanias mentions, as their works, a statue of Athena, at Cleonae (l. c.), and at Argos a group representing Castor and Pollux with their wives, Elaeira and Phoebe, and their sons, Anaxis and Mnasinous. The group was in ebony, except some few parts of the horses, which were of ivory. (Paus. ii. 22.6.) Clement of Alexandria mentions these statues of the Dioscuri, and also statues of Hercules of Tiryns and Artemis of Munychia, at Sicyon. (Protrep.; comp. Plin. l. c.) The disciples of Dipoenus and Scyllis were Tectaeus and Angelion, Learchus of Rhegium, Doxycleidas and his brother Medon, Dontas, and Theocles, who were all four Lacedaemonians. (Paus. ii. 32. 4, iii. 17.6, v. 17. 1, vi. 19.9.)
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
A Greek sculptor, born in Crete, who flourished in Argos and Sicyon about B.C. 560. In conjunction with his countryman Scyllis he founded an influential school of sculpture in the Peloponnesus of the Daedalian style.
Chrysothemis. A Cretan, who first obtained the poetical prize at the Pythian games.
Hybreas. A Cretan lyric poet, the author of a drinking-song preserved in Athenaeus
Hybrias, (Hubrias) of Crete, a lyric poet, the author of a highly esteemed scholion which is preserved by Athenaens (xv. p. 695-6) and Eustathius (ad Odyss. p. 276, 47), and in the Greek Anthology. (Brunck, Anal. vol. i. p. 159; see Jacobs's notes, and Ilgen, Schol. s. Carm. Conviv. Graec. p. 102.)
There were times, indeed, when the barbarians caused a great deal of trouble even to the troops who had climbed to a higher position, when they were coming down again; for their men were so agile that even if they took to flight from close at hand, they could escape; for they had nothing to carry except bows and slings. As bowmen they were most excellent; they had bows nearly three cubits long and their arrows were more than two cubits, and when they shot, they would draw their strings by pressing with the left foot against the lower end of the bow; and their arrows would go straight through shields and breastplates.Whenever they got hold of them, the Greeks would use these arrows as javelins, fitting them with thongs. In these regions the Cretans made themselves exceedingly useful. They were commanded by a Cretan named Stratocles.
Andromachus (Andromachos). A physician of Crete in the age of Nero. He was physician to the emperor, and inventor of the famous medicine, called after him, theriaca Andromachi. It was intended at first as an antidote against poisons, but became afterwards a kind of panacea. This medicine enjoyed so high a reputation among the Romans that the emperor Antoninus, at a later period, took some of it every day, and had it prepared every year in his palace. It consisted of sixty-one ingredients, the principal of which were squills, opium, pepper, and dried vipers.
Andromachus (Andromachos). Commonly called "the Elder", to distinguish him from his son of the same name, was born in Crete, and was physician to Nero, A. D. 54--68. He is principally celebrated for having been the first person on whom the title of " Archiater" is known to have been conferred (Dict. of Ant. s. v. Archiater), and also for having been the inventor of a very famous compound medicine and antidote, which was called after his name " Theriaca Andromachi," which long enjoyed a great reputation, and which retains its place in some foreign Pharmacopoeias to the present day. (Dict. of Ant. s. v. Theriaca). Andromachus has left us the directions for making this strange mixture in a Greek elegiac poem, consisting of one hundred and seventy-four lines, and dedicated to Nero. Galen has inserted it entire in two of his works, and says, that Andromachus chose this form for his receipt as being more easily remembered than prose, and less likely to be altered. The poem has been published in a separate form by Franc. Tidicaeus, Tiguri, 1607, with two Latin translations, one in prose and the other in verse. Some persons suppose him to be the author of a work on pharmacy, but this is generally attributed to his son, Andromachus the Younger.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
360 - 300
Admiral of Alexander the Great, famous for his exploration of the Indian Ocean
and the Persian Gulf.
Nearchus was born on Crete,
but his father Androtimus moved to Amphipolis
in Macedonia; here, Nearchus grew up. Androtimus must have been an important man,
because his son was educated together with the crown prince, Alexander, the son
of king Philip of Macedonia (356-336). When the king sent his son briefly into
exile in 337, Nearchus shared the banishment and returned with his friend.
When Alexander, whose reign had started in 336, invaded Asia in May
334, Nearchus was with him, and at the beginning of the next year, he was appointed
satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia.
This meant that Nearchus was responsible for the ports in southern Turkey; as
long he held them, the Persian navy was forced to sail from Cyprus
to the Aegean Sea through open waters, which was very risky. He did his job well:
during 333, the Persian commanders Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus were active
in the Aegean waters, but they received no reinforcements.
The naval war ended when Alexander conquered Phoenicia,
the Persian naval base. He went on to Egypt
and Babylonia, took the Persian capitals Susa,
Persepolis, Pasargadae and
Ecbatana, pursued the defeated
Persian king Darius III Codomannus and went on to the northeastern provinces of
the former Achaemenid empire, Bactria and Sogdiana.
It was at this stage of the war, in the first months of 329, that
he recalled Nearchus, who was to come to the east and bring Greek mercenaries.
The former satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia shared this command with Asander, who
had been satrap of Lydia.
It is likely that Nearchus was surprised to see how his youth friend had changed:
he was now calling himself Son of Zeus and King of Asia, and wore a diadem and
the Persian royal tunic.
We do not know what Nearchus did during the Sogdian campaign; during
the invasion of India (January
326), however, he was one of the two commanders of the Shield bearers, a heavy
infantry unit. He was almost immediately replaced by Seleucus, who commanded these
men during the battle on the Hydaspes (May).
Although they were victorious, the Macedonian and Greek soldiers refused
to go any further and Alexander decided to return to Babylonia. He ordered the
construction of a large fleet, which was to be commanded by Nearchus. The voyage
down the Indus lasted from November 326 to July 325. It was not an easy cruise:
several times, the Macedonians had to fight a way along resisting native towns.
Finally, the reached Patala (Old Indian for 'camp for ships'), modern Bahmanabad,
75 kilometers north-east of Hyderabad.
Not all soldiers continued to the Ocean. The army was too big to remain
united. In June, general Craterus had already left the main force and had gone
to Carmania with a third of the soldiers. In August, Alexander and half of what
remained of the army set out for a long and difficult march through the Gedrosian
desert. Nearchus was to ship the remaining half of the soldiers, c.33,000 men,
to Carmania and Babylonia. He was not the first westerner to make the expedition:
one Scylax of Caryanda had made the same voyage in the late sixth century BCE.
Later, Nearchus wrote a book about the naval expedition, which was
also to be a voyage of discovery. The Indike is now lost, but its contents are
well-known from several sources, especially the Indike by Arrian. It seems to
have consisted of two parts: the first half contained a description of India's
borders, size, rivers, population, castes, animals -especially elephants-, armies
and customs; the second half described Nearchus' voyage home.
On September 15, Nearchus' set out from Patala, having waited for
the Southwest monsoon to subside. It is not easy to reconstruct the voyage in
detail, because it was impossible for the ancients to measure distances at sea;
all Nearchus' indications of distance are, therefore, merely guesswork and can
hardly be relied upon to reconstruct his expedition. Nonetheless, the information
in the Indike is sufficient to have a general idea of the route and the troubles
encountered.
Almost immediately after leaving Patala, it was clear that the Macedonian
fleet had set out too soon. (Perhaps the native population had forced Nearchus
to leave earlier than he wanted to.) The ships encountered adversary winds and
it took them almost a week to reach Ocean. Then, they headed for the North, through
the laguna between the mouths of the rivers Indus and Hab. This was easier, but
when they turned to the East, the renewed Southwest monsoon proved too strong
to continue. The Macedonians had to wait and fortified their camp with a wall
of stone, fearing enemy attacks. They soon discovered that their supplies were
running out. They were forced to hunt for mussels, oysters, and so-called razor-fish
and had to drink briny water.
They had to remain there for twenty-four days, but were able to continue
and after several days reached a place called Morontobara or Woman's Harbor (modern
Karachi) and reached the mouth of the Hab. They continued along the coast thought
the Sonmiani Bay. One night, they camped on the battlefield where Leonnatus, one
of Alexander's generals, had defeated the native population, the Oreitans ('Mountain
people'). He had left a large food deposit for Nearchus' men: enough for ten days.
With the wind behind them and sufficient supplies, they were able
to speed up their journey and reached the Hingol river. At this point, the Indike
describes how a native village was destroyed and its inhabitants were killed.
It is remarkable that the author (Arrian/Nearchus) makes no attempt to justify
the attack.
Continuing their voyage, Nearchus and his men arrived in the country
of the Fish eaters. (It was a common practice among the Greeks to describe people
not by their own name, but by one of their most remarkable customs.) These were
very poor people living on the sandy strip of land between the Ocean and the Gedrosian
desert, and the Macedonians had big difficulties finding supplies. Fortunately,
they found an excellent harbor, called Bagisara (modern Ormara).
The next stage of the voyage is well-understood: they put in at Colta
(Ras Sakani), Calima (Kalat) and an island called Carnine (Astola), where, according
to Nearchus, even the mutton had a fishy taste. They continued and passed Cysa
(near Pasni) and Mosarna (near Ras Shahid). Here, a Gedrosian pilot joined them,
who led them in two days to modern Gwadar, where they were delighted to see date-palms
and gardens. Three days later, Nearchus' men surprised Cyisa, a town near modern
Ra's Beris and took away their supplies. Next, they anchored near a promontory
dedicated to the Sun, called Bageia ('dwelling of the gods') by the natives; it
is probably identical to Ra's Kuh Lab.
From now on, the Macedonians were really hungry, and they must have
been happy to see that they could cover large distances. The places that Nearchus
mentions in his account of the voyage (Talmena, Canasis, Canate, Taa, Dagaseira
- can not be identified, although it is plausible that the last mentioned town
is modern Jask. Now Nearchus had reached Carmania and was approaching the Straits
of Hormuz. In the Indike, he notes that the country produced corn, vines and many
cultivated trees, except the olive tree that the Greeks loved so much. The sailors
saw the Oman peninsula, and Nearchus describes how the helmsman of the flagship,
Onesicritus, said that they should go over there, and that Nearchus replied that
he did not want to expose the fleet to new dangers.
Nearchus describes Onesicritus as a fool and also mentions that Onesicritus
had (later) falsely claimed to have been the fleet-commander. Most scholars accept
Nearchus words, but there may be more to it than meets they eyes. Alexander had
started to give important commands to two people at the same time, who had to
act as colleagues (e.g., Nearchus had shared the command of Alexander's Greek
mercenaries with Asander and had been in charge of the Shield bearers with one
Antiochus). It is possible that Onesicritus was not just the helmsman of the flagship,
but Nearchus' equal, and it is also possible that Alexander had ordered his navy
to conquer the Oman peninsula, which was a Persian satrapy, Maka. Perhaps we should
not believe Nearchus' own words.
Two days later, the Macedonian navy reached Harmozeia (modern Minab),
one of the largest ports in the Persian Gulf. Here they had a rendez-vous with
Alexander, who had marched through the Gedrosian desert. Nearchus had believed
Alexander was lost and Alexander had believed that he had lost his navy, so it
was a happy encounter.
It was January 324 when the Macedonian fleet continued its voyage
along the coasts of Carmania and Persis. But now, they were traveling along familiar
shores and made progress. Among the identifiable places they visited are the island
Qeshm, Cape Ra's-e Bostaneh, the island Queys, Band-e Nakhilu, the island Lazeh
(where they watched pearl divers), the Bandar-e Shiu promontory, Nay Band, Kangan,
the river Mand, Busher, the river Dasht-e Palang, Jazireh-ye Shif and the river
Hendiyan, which is the border of Persis and Susiana. Here, the ships could no
longer continue along the coast because of the breakers. However, the finally
reached the mouth of the Tigris safely.
When Nearchus heard that Alexander was approaching from the east,
he decided to wait for his king at Susa, the capital of Susiana. Here, Alexander
celebrated the homecoming of his army and navy. Nearchus, Onesicritus and several
others received a golden diadem as a reward for their deeds.
It was Alexander's wish that his friends and then other Macedonians
would marry native women; therefore, Nearchus married to a daughter of Alexander's
Persian mistress Barsine. It is not known whether they had children, but it is
remarkable that during the conflicts after Alexander's death, Nearchus backed
Heracles, the son of Alexander and Barsine, and stayed with his wife. The other
Macedonians usually divorced their Persian wives.
In the last months of Alexander's life, Nearchus was usually with
him, which may have something to do with the fact that Alexander was making plans
for a naval expedition against the Arabs of modern Yemen. However, Alexander died
on June 11, 323 (click here for a discussion of the date). This was the beginning
of the era of Alexander's successors, the Diadochi.
As already said, Nearchus backed the son of his wife, Heracles, but
the boy and Barsine were probably killed by Polyperchon, one of the generals fighting
for a share of Alexander's inheritance (309). Nearchus spend some time with another
general, Antigonus, and educated his son Demetrius. When Demetrius had his first
independent command in a war against Ptolemy, Nearchus assisted him. The two were
defeated near Gaza (312).
Nearchus' year of death is unknown.
Jona Lendering, ed.
This text is cited July 2003 from the Livius Ancient History Website URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks.
Lasthenes. A Cretan who took a prominent part in urging his countrymen to resist the attack of M. Antonius in B. C. 70. On this account, when the Cretans, after the defeat of Antonius, sent an embassy to Rome to excuse their past conduct, and sue for peace, one of the conditions imposed by the senate was the surrender of Lasthenes and Panares, as the authors of their offence. (Diod. Exe. Legat. xl.; Appian, Sic. 6; Dion Cass. Fragm. 177). These terms were rejected by the Cretans; and in the war that followed against Q. Metellus (B. C. 68) Lasthenes was one of the principal leaders. Together with Panares, he assembled an army of 24,000 men, with which they maintained the contest against the Roman army for near three years: the excellence of the Cretans as archers, and their great personal activity, giving them many advantages in desultory warfare. At length, however, Lasthenes was defeated by Metellus near Cydonia, and fled for refuge to Cnossus, where, finding himself closely pressed by the Roman general, he is said to have set fire to his own house, and consumed it with all his valuables. After this he made his escape from the city, and took refuge in Lyttus, but was ultimately compelled to surrender, stipulating only that his life should be spared. Metellus intended to retain both Lasthenes and Panares as prisoners, to adorn his triumph, but was compelled to give them up by Pompey, under whose protection the Cretans had placed themselves. (Diod. l. c. ; Appian, Sic. 6. 1, 2; Phlegon, ap. Phot.; Dion Cass. xxxvi. 2; Vell. Pat ii. 34.)
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2006 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Andreas, archbishop of Crete, was a native of Damascus. He was first a monk at Jerusalem, whence he is called in some ancient writings " of Jerusalem" (Hierosolumites, ho Hierosolumon), then a deacon at Constantinople, and lastly archbishop of Crete. His time is rather doubtful, but Cave has shewn that he probably flourished as early as A. D. 635. (Hist. Lit. sub ann.) In 680 he was sent by Theodorus, the patriarch of Jerusalem, to the 6th council of Constantinople, against the Monothelites, where he was ordained a deacon. Some Iambics are still extant in which he thanks Agathe, the keeper of the documents, for communicating to him the acts of the synod. It seems to have been soon after this council that he was made archbishop of Crete. A doubtful tradition relates that he died on the 14th of June, 724 (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. xi.). The works ascribed to him, consisting of Homilies, and Triodia and other hymns, were published by Combefisius, Par. 1644. A " Computus Paschalis," ascribed to Andreas, was published in Greek and Latin by Petavius. There is great doubt as to the genuineness of several of these works.
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Elias. Elias of Crete. There are several works extant ascribed to Elias Cretensis,
whom Rader, Cave, Fabricius, and others, suppose to have been Elias, bishop (or
rather metropolitan) of Crete, who took part in the second general council of
Nicaea, A. D. 787. (Labbe, Concilia, vol. vii.) Leunclavius considers that the
author was a different person from the prelate, and places the former in the sixth
century or thereabout (Prooemiam in Sti Gragorii Nazianzeni Opera) Oudin, who
has examined the subject most carefully, agrees with Leunclavius in distinguishing
the writer from the prelate, and deduces from the internal evidence of his works
that the writer lived about A. D. 1120 or 1130.
He wrote
(1) Commentaries on several of the Orations of Gregory Nazianzen. There are several
MSS. extant of these commentaries in the original Greek, but we believe they have
never been printed. A Latin version of them, partly new, partly selected from
former translations, was published by Billius with his Latin version of Gregory's
works, and has been repeatedly reprinted.
(2.) A Commentary on the Klimax, Climanx, " Scala Paradisi," or Ladder
of Paradise of Joannes or John surnanmed Scholasticus or Climacus. This commentary,
which has never been published, but is extant in MS., is described by Rader in
his edition of the Climax, as very bulky. Some extracts are embodied in the Scholia
of a later commentator given by Rader.
(3.) An answer respecting virgins espoused before the age of puberty. This is
extant in MS. in the King's Library at Paris, in the catalogue of which the author
is described as the metropolitan of Crete.
(4.) Answers to Dionysius the Monk on his seven different questions, given by
Binefidius (Juris Orient. Libri, iii.) and Leunclavius (Jus Gr. Rom. i.).
It is not known that any other works of his are extant. Nicolaus Commenus
in his Praenotiones Mystagogicae cites other works, but they tire probably lust.
One was On the Morals of the Heathens, and the others were Answers to the Monks
of Corinth, To the Monks of Asea, and To the Solitary Monks. Harless incorrectly
ascribes to Elias of Crete the work of Elias or Helias of Charax on versification.
(Cave, Hist. Lit. vol. i.; Rader, Isgoge ad Scalam St. Joannis Climaci, prefixed
to his edition of that work; Oudin, Commentarii de Scriptor. et Scriptis Ecclesiasticis,
vol. ii. col. 1066, &c.; Fabric Bibl. Graec. vol. viii., ix., xi.; Catalogus Librorum
Manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Regiae, Paris, 1740.)
This text is from: A dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, 1873 (ed. William Smith). Cited Oct 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Crete offers visitors endless possibilities for pursuing their particular
sports or hobbies. The large hotels, which have marvelous recreational facilities,
pride themselves on their facilities for sports. We might mention as well:
Swimming: Swimming competitions are often held in
island clubs.
Tennis: All large hotels have courts and there are
tennis clubs in the bigger towns.
Mountain climbing: Mountain climbing clubs organize
expeditions.
Water-skiing and windsurfing: Facilities fro both
sports are available in the larger hotels.
Sailing: Facilities are available in the larger hotels
and in local sailing clubs.
Fishing and hunting: Foreigners can fish without
a license all year round. Hunting is permitted in season.
Bowling: Facilities are available in some hotels.
Car, motorcycle and bicycle racing: Local clubs in
the larger towns often organized competitions.
Flying: There are two aeroclubs, one in Heracleion
and the other in Chania.
(text: MANOLIS DOULGERAKIS & UTE SCHACHTELE)
This text (extract) is cited February 2004 from the Heraklio
Hoteliers Association tourist pamphlet.
Creta (sc. terra). Chalk or clay; so called from its abundance in the island of Crete (Creta), and so in Greek "Kretike ge". The creta proper was simply chalk; creta Eretria was a species of earth found near Eretria in Euboea and used in medicine as an astringent; creta Sarda was fuller's earth, used in cleaning garments; creta Cimolia was a better kind of the same; and creta Selinusia (from Selinus in Sicily) furnished women with one of their numerous face-powders. Of some species of creta, vessels were made. From the whiteness of chalk, it was spoken of tropically as denoting luck, contrasted with carbo. The feet of slaves exposed for sale were chalked (Juv.i. 111), possibly to aid in tracking them if they escaped; hence gypsati pedes in Tibull. ii. 3, 60. The word cretati is sometimes applied to candidates for office, from the white robes they wore=candidati.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited Nov 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Cervesia, Cervisia or Cerevisia (zuthos). Ale or beer; a beverage scarcely ever
drunk by the ancient Greeks and Romans, although it was very generally used by
the surrounding nations, whose soil and climate were less favourable to the growth
of vines ...
The beer or barley-wine of Crete was known as korma or kourmi.
The fertile soil of Crete yields a wide variety of crops, which are
one reason why foreigners love to visit the island. Anyone who wanders through
the colourful town and village markets, summer or winter and observes the thousands
of foreign buyers will understand how much Cretan produce adds to their enjoyment
of their stay. Crops are abundant, varied, delicious and healthy. European markets
are packed with cucumbers, tomatoes, beans, courgettes and greens from the fields
and hothouses of Chania, Messara
and Hierapetra, and with table
grapes from the famous vineyards of Archanes,
Pedhiadha and Malevisi.
In Cretan markets, you will also find oranges from Chania
and Phodhele, bananas from
Vianno, almonds from Mirabello,
cherries from Geracari, watermelons
and melons from the Messara plain, olives and olive oil from all over Crete, avocados
from Chania, cheese and milk
from the mountains, all sorts of herbal teas, vegetables and greens form the coastal
plains, potatoes from Lassithi, and free-rang eggs from the villages. The mild
climate, the sunshine and, in many places, the abundance of water, favour agriculture
on the island. In two international medical conferences, noted scientists expressed
the view that the Cretans are protected from heart disease by the olive oil and
olives they consume. It is said that the salt wind from the sea gives the grass
a special quality, which flavours the meat - the favourite food of both Cretans
and foreigners. The salt air also fortifies the vineyards, which produce the famous
Cretan wines and raki, the special liquor of Crete.
(text: MANOLIS DOULGERAKIS & UTE SCHACHTELE)
This text (extract) is cited February 2004 from the Heraklio
Hoteliers Association tourist pamphlet.
Rock clibing, Hiking trails, Parapente, Mountai shelters
In Crete, you will come across opportunities to enjoy yourself by
taking part in a Cretan "glenti", or merry-making, almost every day.
In the villages, above all, traditional Cretan weddings will give you a chance
to hear authentic folk music, follow Cretan dances, drink Cretan wine, and eat
tidbits of Cretan meat. The feast-days of churches and monasteries are occasions
for merry-making, spring, summer and autumn. A brief calendar of feast days and
educational and recreational events, though it is a list that grows longer every
year, will give you some idea of the possibilities:
February: The feast of Haghios Charalambos is celbrated
with dances, food and drink at Crousona.
March: Carnival time, with festivities all over the
island, particularly in the big towns.
Shrove Monday: the first day of Lent, celebrated
in the countryside with dances, music and Lenten food (particularly seafood and
a special unleavened bread, "lagana", eaten only on this day) and plenty
of wine.
March 25: A national holiday, in honour of the Day
of Independence and the Feast of the Annunciation. In Apocorona,
Chania, a festival is held on Lady Day.
Easter: Religious celebrations take place all over
Crete, throughout Holy Week. On Easter Sunday and Monday, everyone feasts on roast
lamb and drinks lots of wine. Characas,
Monofatsi, is particularly noted for its Easter celebrations. In the second
and third day after Easter, an orange festival is held in Skines,
Kidonia, Chania, with dances and songs.
April: The Feast-day of St. George, April 23, is
a sheep shearing festival. Milk, wine and food are served in the village Haghios
Georgios on the plateau of Lassithi. Milk and cheese feast in Assi
Gonia, Chania.
When Easter Sunday falls early, the orange festival of Skines
is held on the fifth and sixth of May.
May: On May Day, Cretans flock to the countryside
to gather wild flowers for May-Day wreaths and to feast.
May 21: A festival, with dancing and singing, is
held in Arcalochori, Heracleion.
Throughout the week of May 21, celebrations are organized in the honour of the
glorious Battle of Crete, particularly in Rethymno,
Heracleion and Chania.
The festivities include athletic games, dancing in public squares, exhibitions
of historical documents from the war, speeches, plays, concerts and religious
ceremonies.
June: The village of Piskokephalo,
near Crousta, Lassithi, holds
a festival.
July 9: A wine festival is organized in Rethymnon,
with much merry-making and plenty of free wine.
July 17: The feast-day of St. Marina, celebrated
in the village of Voni with dances and feasting. Towards the end of the month,
the village of Daphnes, Heracleion,
holds a wine festival.
July 26: The feast-day of St. Paraskevi is celbrated
in Scoteinos Cave, near Gouves.
August: This is the month of most festivals in Crete.
During the first two weeks, Sitia
holds a sultana-grape festival, accompanied by many festivities while Anogeia
organizes a festival, which includes exhibitions of popular crafts, folk dancing
and folk music competitions, a traditional Cretan wedding, concerts and athletic
events. Visitors are invited to join in. Religious celebrations are held in Arcalochori,
Archanes, Alagni and Haghios
Myron, Heracleion. In the village of Critsa,
Lassithi, foreigners can be guests at a traditional wedding, in which all
the folk customs are observed.
August 15: The Feast of the Assumption is a major
feast day all over Crete, in monasteries, convents and churches dedicated to the
Virgin Mary. The most important festivities are held in Neapolis,
Lassithi, in Mochos, Paliani,
Cardhiotissa and Hodhigitria.
During summer three months (July, August and September) of educational
and recreational events are organized by the city
of Heracleion. Concerts of classical and folk music, plays, ballets, operas
and exhibitions of paintings and photographs are among the attractions that draw
artists and intellectuals from all over Greece.
September: The vintage month of wine and raki. In
many villages, festivals are held to celebrate the coming of autumn. In Pombia,
Heracleion, a festival is organized in honour of the great Cretan hero, Michalis
Corakas.
October: A chestnut festival is held at Elos,
Kissamos, on October 21.
November: Celebrations in Rethymnon
and at the Monastery of Arcadi
in memory of the epic events that culminate in the holocaust of 1866.
December: The holy Days are observed according to
age-old traditions, especially in the villages. In Cretan towns, carols are sung
on Christmas and New Year’s Eve, and the feasting starts at midnight. Churches
hold services in honour of birth of Christ and the beginning of the New Year.
January: The festivals of Epiphany and of St. John
the Baptist on the sixth and seventh of January round off the Christmas festivities.
Epiphany is celebrated with religious processions, the blessing of waters and
diving by the faithful.
Countless other festivals are organized throughout the year in the
villages by hundreds of educational and recreational groups. The festivals, especially
those that include feasting and dancing, are publicly announced, so that foreigners
can easily find out about them and join the fun.
(text: MANOLIS DOULGERAKIS & UTE SCHACHTELE)
This text (extract) is cited February 2004 from the Heraklio
Hoteliers Association tourist pamphlet.
In Crete the sun shines three hundred days a year. The mild and tolerable
winter lasts from three to four months. The sun is often so hot that, as one journalist
wrote, the very palm-trees feel at home in Crete. The most delightful time of
year is spring or autumn. Snow, unknown on the plains, along the coast and in
the towns is seen only on the White
Mountains, on Psiloreitis
and on the Siteia Mountains during the winter season.
(text: MANOLIS DOULGERAKIS & UTE SCHACHTELE)
This text (extract) is cited February 2004 from the Heraklio
Hoteliers Association tourist pamphlet.
Iardanus (Iardanos), a river on the N. coast of Crete, near the banks
of which the Cydonians dwelt. (Hom. Od. iii. 292.) It is identified with the rapid
stream of the Platania, which rises in the White Mountains, and, after flowing
between the Rhizite villages of Theriso and Laki or Lakus, runs through a valley
formed by low hills, and filled with lofty platanes; from which it obtains its
name. The river of Platania falls into the sea, nearly opposite the islet of Haghios
Theodhoros, where there is good anchorage. (Pashley, Trav. vol. ii. p. 22 ; Hock,
Kreta, vol. i. pp. 23, 384.)
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