Εμφανίζονται 100 (επί συνόλου 125) τίτλοι με αναζήτηση: Αρχαιολογικοί χώροι στην ευρύτερη περιοχή: "ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ Χώρα ΕΥΡΩΠΗ" .
ΑΙΓΑΙ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Τετράγωνο κτήριο στα βόρεια της Aγοράς. Χρονολογείται τον 1ο αι. μ.X.
Η είσοδος του κτηρίου ήταν στα νότια, ενώ τα διασωθέντα λείψανα οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα
ότι κατά μήκος των τοίχων υπήρχαν σειρές λίθινων καθισμάτων σε σχήμα πετάλου.
Η ταύτισή του με βουλευτήριο ενισχύεται από επιγραφή επιστυλίου που αναφέρει χαρακτηριστικά:
"Αντιφάνης Απολλωνίδα Διί Βολλαίω και Ιστία Βολλαίω και τω δάμω". Ο Αντιφάνης
δηλαδή, ο γιός του Απολλωνίδη, (αφιερώνει) στο Δία Βουλλαίο και στην Εστία Βουλλαία
και στο δήμο. Το αποδεικτικό στοιχείο είναι η αφιέρωση στην Εστία, η λατρεία της
οποίας συνδεόταν μ' ένα δημόσιο κτήριο, είτε αυτό ήταν βουλευτήριο, είτε πρυτανείο.
Το κείμενο παρατίθεται τον Ιούνιο 2004 από την ακόλουθη ιστοσελίδα του Ιδρυματος Μείζονος Ελληνισμού
ΗΡΑΚΛΕΙΑ ΕΠΙ ΛΑΤΜΩ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Das Projekt wird von der Zentrale des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts betreut
ΑΛΙΚΑΡΝΑΣΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Halikarnassos
Type: Mausoleum
Summary: Monumental tomb structure with interior tomb chamber, tall
podium, peristyle, and pyramidal roof.
Date: ca. 355 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
The Maussolleion was rectangular in ground plan, and was designed to be situated
in a walled temenos enclosure entered through a propylon in the east wall. Recent
reconstructions of the tomb show a two- or three-stepped podium supporting a pteron
of nine by eleven columns. The roof of the Maussolleion consisted of a pyramid
of twenty-four steps, surmounted by a statue base supporting the crowning element
of quadriga and statuary. The building was decorated with much free-standing and
relief sculpture, carried out by Skopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheos, and
was known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
History:
The Maussolleion was the burial location of the Carian dynast Mausolus, who died
in 353/2 B.C. Literary sources attribute the construction of the tomb to Mausolus'
wife and sister Artemisia (Strabo 14.2.16; Pliny, NH 36.30). Since, however, Artemisia
ruled for only two years after Mausolus' death and was dead herself by 351/0 B.C.,
this does not allow enough time for such a monumental undertaking, and suggests
that the Maussolleion was begun during Mausolus' lifetime. The tomb also fits
comfortably into the city plan of Halikarnassos, which may have been reshaped
by Mausolus in the mid-fourth century B.C. The tomb was still incomplete when
Artemisia died, and it is unclear who was responsible for completing it, although
it is generally accepted that Mausolus' brother Idreus and Idreus' sister/wife
Ada may have continued work on the Maussolleion after Artemisia's death. Some
scholars believe that the Maussolleion, like the surrounding temenos wall and
its propylon, was never finished; others have suggested that Alexander the Great
contributed to the construction of the monument, although this seems unlikely
given the nature of the structure and Alexander's animosity towards the citizens
of Halikarnassos for their failure to support him. It is generally considered
that construction of the tomb came to a standstill in ca. 340 B.C. The Maussolleion
remained undamaged at least until the 12th c. A.D. By the early 15th c., however,
it had been substantially destroyed, perhaps by an earthquake, and the Knights
of St. John removed much of the building stones to construct the Castle of St.
Peter nearby. In the sixteenth century, a burial chamber was discovered by the
Knights as they sought additional building material. The site was excavated in
1857 by Charles Newton, who removed much of the sculpture to the British Museum.
Excavation resumed under Danish direction in 1966.
Other Notes:
The sculptural display of the Maussolleion is restored as follows (in broad outline):
on the lower parapet or step of the podium stood life-size groups and single figures
representing fighting warriors on horseback and on foot; on the upper parapet
of the podium were represented hunting scenes and a sacrificial procession. Crowning
the podium was a marble relief frieze representing an Amazonomachy. In the intercolumniations
of the cella were free-standing sculptures; a relief depicting a Centauromachy
may have been placed at the top of the cella wall. Above the sima of the cella,
on the lowest step of the pyramidal roof, were lions in confronting rows. The
crowning element of the structure was a statue group consisting of a quadriga
containing colossal figures of either Mausolus (in the guise of Helios?) and Artemisia,
or representing ancestors of the dynast (for the interpretation, see Waywell 1978,
40-43). Architecturally, the Maussolleion displays affinities to Egyptian pyramids,
not only in the form of its roof with definite apex, but also in its monumental
scale; Egypt and Caria had long-standing connections. The tomb of the Persian
ruler Cyrus the Great, at Pasargadae, a rectangular gabled tomb on a tall stepped
substructure, is also cited as a possible influence on the Maussolleion. Close
to home, the Nereid Monument at Xanthos (Lycia) and the Heroon of Perikles at
Limyra (Lycia) may also have provided inspiration. The incorporation, however,
of elements commonly found in Greek temple architecture, for example the Ionic
pillars and relief friezes, suggests that the Greek sculptors and craftsmen who
worked on the Maussolleion were trained in the area of religious architecture,
and that precedents for such a monumental tomb structure were few.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΑΣΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Assos
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Doric council house; located at the east end of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Square building with front wall opening west, 5 columns in antis and 4 inner
columns arranged in a square.
History:
Dated 3rd century B.C. to 2nd century B.C.
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Site: Assos
Type: Fortification
Summary: Well-preserved Hellenistic system of walls and towers
Date: Unknown
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The fortifications of Assos enclosed an area of some 55 ha., including the
acropolis and the harbor of the city. Two major gateways and seven smaller gates
led into the city. One round and many square towers, some still standing to a
height of up to 20 m., defended the circuit walls.
History:
The standing portions of the city walls mostly date to the Hellenistic period,
but earlier phases are visible in places; some of these probably date back to
the Archaic period.
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Site: Assos
Type: Gymnasium
Summary: Colonnaded courtyard with rooms; inside the main city gate
immediately to the east, between the propylon and the agora.
Date: ca. 200 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Paved courtyard with Doric colonnade. Three rooms adjoining on northeast and a
4th room touching the easternmost of the 3 rooms on its eastern corner. Cistern
in southwest corner. Entrance on south of courtyard. Attached triangular court
outside of south wall.
History:
Columns of courtyard had no entasis. Remains of Byzantine church in northwest
corner of the colonnade, with apse showing on the east.
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Site: Assos
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-storied Doric stoa; on the north side of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Exterior and interior colonnade of unfluted Doric columns in both stories. Exterior
colonnade of upper story composed of double half-columns.
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Site: Assos
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-aisled stoa; on the south side of the agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
(The plan accompanying this card is of the agora level.) First story (lowest),
cisterns; 2nd, 13 shops opening south onto a gallery; 3rd, two-aisled gallery;
4th, (agora level) two-aisled with a Doric outer colonnade, opened north; fifth
story, two-aisled with Doric outer colonnade of double half-columns and inner
colonnade with palm-capitals.
History:
Coulton lists the 5 levels described above in Plan description. Akurgal and
PECS cite this stoa as three-storied.
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Site: Assos
Type: Temple
Summary: Small prostyle temple; located at the west end of the agora,
midway between the North and South stoas.
Date: ca. 200 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Cella opening east, onto a pronaos having 4 prostyle columns.
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Site: Assos
Type: Temple
Summary: Peripteral temple; on the city acropolis, north of the
agora.
Date: ca. 540 B.C. - 530 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
Doric peripteral temple, 6 x 13 columns. Cella opening east onto a pronaos
distyle in antis.
History:
The architrave was decorated with a frieze, adding to the Doric order a feature
usually seen only in the Ionic order. Excavation in the cella revealed a pebble
mosaic of Hellenistic date, but this is no longer visible.
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Site: Assos
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater; on the slope to the south of the agora.
Date: ca. 250 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Horseshoe shaped orchestra, cavea with 6 cunei (sectors) facing the stage
building.
History:
In Hellenistic times a wooden fence in front of the 1st row of seats kept
the audience off the orchestra. Probably in Roman times a low podium (top of the
2nd row of seats) and a parapet at orchestra level made the orchestra more of
an arena.
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i>Site: Assos
Type: Gate
Summary: Gate; in the western city wall.
Date: ca. 400 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
Rectangular, opening northwest. Guard tower to the east.
History:
The fortifications of Assos are very well preserved, with the east guard tower
of this gate missing only its battlements. Portions of early polygonal masonry
remain in the mostly 4th century B.C. walls. A corbelled arch is used in the main
gate, not a true arch as employed elsewhere at Assos.
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ΔΙΔΥΜΑ (Αρχαίο ιερό) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Didyma
Type: Temple
Summary: Oracular temple of Apollo located at Didyma in Ionia; foundations
of two earlier phases of the temple located in the adyton of the Hellenistic Temple
of Apollo at Didyma
Date: ca. 540 B.C. - 530 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The plan of the first built structure at Didyma, the so-called sekos (Temple I)
dating to ca. 700 B.C., consisted of a simple rectangular enclosure, open to the
sky; the foundations of this sekos have been found within the adyton of the Hellenistic
temple. The walls of the sekos were not parallel, but converged towards the east.
No columns are associated with the earliest sekos, and its eastern extension is
unknown. In the sixth century B.C., a naiskos or small shrine was constructed
inside the sekos, towards the west (rear) wall; whether or not this naiskos was
built before the construction of the archaic temple (Temple II), or was contemporary
with Temple II is disputed. The plan of the archaic temple is uncertain, and a
number of reconstructions have been proposed. Within the Hellenistic adyton were
found the north, south and west foundation walls of the adyton of the second temple,
Temple II. This archaic adyton was larger than the entire sekos of ca. 700 B.C.
One reconstruction of the archaic temple Gruben 1963, fig. 1 proposed a dipteral
temple on a two-stepped crepidoma, with 21 columns along the flanks, 9 across
the rear, and 8 across the facade. The deep pronaos contained two rows of columns,
with four columns in each row; a staircase led down to the long adyton, whose
interior walls were articulated by eight projecting piers. Within the adyton,
towards the west rear wall, stood the naiskos which Gruben reconstructs as distyle
in antis. This naiskos and the archaic temple are reconstructed as being on axis
with the archaic circular ash altar located to the east. Subsequent excavations,
Drerup 1964, 364-367, have revealed that the adyton walls did not extend as far
to the east as Gruben indicated, and thus the following reconstruction was proposed
Tuchelt 1970, 203-205, Tuchelt 1973, fig. 3: a dipteral colonnade with 17 columns
along the flanks, 9 across the rear, and 8 across the facade, surrounding a deep
pronaos with two rows of four columns each, and an adyton, approached by a staircase
from the pronaos. The interior walls of the adyton, being shorter than those imagined
by Gruben, were thus articulated by only five projecting piers. In Tuchelt's reconstruction,
the archaic temple is oriented on axis with the archaic circular altar ca. 40
m. to the east, whereas the naiskos, thought by Tuchelt to belong to Temple I,
is out of alignment with Temple II and the archaic altar. A third reconstruction,
Fehr 1972, 16-29, sees the archaic temple as containing some of the complexities
apparent in the Hellenistic temple, in particular additional chambers and passages
between the pronaos and the adyton. Fehr accepts the shorter crepidoma proposed
by Tuchelt, but, employing a shorter interaxial intercolumniation, proposes a
dipteral colonnade of 21 columns along the flanks and, as in the Hellenistic temple,
10 across both front and back. According to Fehr, the pronaos was five-aisled,
with four rows of columns containing three in each row. Between the pronaos and
the adyton was a complicated system of east chamber (in which stood two columns),
transverse hallway with stairs leading to an upper floor, and an antechamber at
the west, also containing two columns. Fehr also proposes that vaulted passages
led from the pronaos to the adyton, the prototype for the Hellenistic arrangement.
History:
The earliest building phase at the temple site is represented by the fragmentary
stretches of converging walls located within the Hellenistic adyton. These remains
are interpreted as the foundations of a late geometric sekos or open enclosure,
whose superstructure was of mudbrick, constructed ca. 700 B.C. In the early sixth
century, a naiskos was built inside this sekos. The remains of this naiskos are
interpreted as later than the exterior walls of the sekos, due to the use of a
different construction technique (by Drerup 1964, 362-363 and Tuchelt 1970, 197-203).
Drerup and Tuchelt therefore date the first naiskos to ca. 575 B.C. In ca. 540
B.C., a larger temple, the archaic temple (Temple II) was built; its adyton walls
enclosed the entire late geometric sekos. Gruben 1963, 100-102 and Fehr 1972,
56-59 see the construction of the naiskos as contemporary with the archaic Temple
II, at ca. 540 B.C. The archaic sanctuary and its oracle was under the control
of a priestly tribe, the Branchidai, until it was destroyed by the Persians. Hdt.
6.19.2-3 attributes this destruction to Darius, in 494 B.C., while later writers,
notably Strabo 14.1.5, attribute this destruction to Xerxes in 479 B.C. The earlier
destruction date is generally accepted. After the Persian destruction, there is
evidence of renewed building activity at the temple: anta capitals decorated with
volutes in relief, and other architectural elements, may belong to altars erected
in the adyton. This evidence may indicate that Didyma remained an active cult
center throughout the fifth century B.C., although there is no evidence of oracular
responses until the oracle was revived in ca. 331 B.C.
Other Notes:
The late geometric sekos was most probably erected around the sacred spring, which
was located near the rear of the adyton, in the vicinity of the archaic and later
Hellenistic naiskos. Architectural remains from the archaic temple indicate that
the lower column drums of the east facade were decorated with marble female figures
in relief, of archaic East Greek style, and perhaps reflecting the influence of
the archaic Artemision at Ephesos (see Berlin Sk 1721 and Sk 1748 ). Fragments
of Ionic capitals with convex channels were found; these supported a marble architrave.
The corners of the architraves were decorated with running gorgons accompanied
by recumbent lions. In the late sixth century B.C., the temple received a bronze
cult image of Apollo made by the sculptor Kanachos. This statue probably stood
in the naiskos of the temple, and was transported to Ecbatana after the Persian
destruction.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 6 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Didyma
Type: Temple
Summary: Monumental oracular temple of Apollo, situated in Milesian
territory in Ionia and connected to Miletus by the Sacred Way.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - A.D. 200
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
In plan, the temple presents a number of unusual features. It is a monumental,
dipteral temple on a seven-stepped crepidoma, with decastyle facade and twenty-one
columns along the flanks. The temple is oriented to the east; its pronaos is approached
by a flight of fourteen steps between projecting low walls or wings. The temple
has no opisthodomos; and its pronaos contains three rows of four columns each.
A wall bars access to the cella (or adyton) from the pronaos; above the wall,
a wide opening or window allowed the visitor to glimpse the naiskos in the interior
of the cella. On the right and left sides of the west wall of the pronaos, doorways
lead to two sloping, barrel-vaulted passageways. These passages or tunnels emerge
on the third step of a monumental staircase. By descending this staircase, the
visitor arrives in the cella; by ascending these twenty two steps, the visitor
is brought back up to a room, the east chamber, situated between the pronaos and
the cella. The east chamber was entered through three doors in its west wall,
and contains two Corinthian columns which supported the roof of the chamber. Two
staircases, at the north and south of the east chamber, perhaps led to the roof
of this room. The cella or adyton was situated ca. 4 m. below the level of the
east chamber, and was hypaethral. The cella walls were articulated by Ionic pilasters
supported by a podium; there were nine along each side and three across the rear
wall, in addition to the corner pilasters. Between the doors to the east chamber,
on the east wall of the adyton, were two engaged Corinthian half-columns. Towards
the rear (west) wall of the cella or adyton stood a small shrine or naiskos in
the form of a tetrastyle prostyle temple of Ionic order, the location of the sacred
spring of the oracle and possibly the home of the cult image of Apollo.
History:
Following the destruction of the archaic temple in 494 B.C., there are no records
of oracular pronouncements for ca. 160 years, although the site may have remained
an active cult center. In ca. 331 B.C. the oracle was revived and the planning
of the new Hellenistic temple was begun. The design of the Hellenistic temple
is attributed by Vitruvius to Paionios of Ephesos and Daphnis of Miletus (Vitr.
7. praef.16). Although the start date for the construction of the temple is disputed,
inscriptions dating to ca. 299/98 B.C. indicate that Seleukos I Nikator, significant
benefactor of the town of Miletus, had provided much funding for the construction
of the new temple by that date; revenue from the east stoa of the South Market
at Miletus , funded by Seleukos' son Antiochos, also contributed to the construction
of the temple. In the early third century B.C., the cult image of Apollo which
had been removed by the Persians was returned to Didyma from Ecbatana by Seleukos
I Nikator (Paus. 1.16.3). Inscribed building accounts indicate that the elements
of the temple which were completed prior to ca. 230 B.C. were the socle wall of
the adyton, the naiskos, the vaulted passages to the adyton, and parts of the
crepidoma. Prior to ca. 165 B.C., the pilasters in the adyton, the two staircases
(known as labyrinths in the building accounts), doors and the main portal were
completed. Also in the early years of the second century B.C., a stadium was erected
to the south of the temple to accommodate games associated with the festival of
Apollo Didymeus. That the temple itself was never completed is reported by Pausanias
(Paus. 7.5.4), and is apparent from a number of unfinished columns at the site.
The Emperor Gaius Caligula intended to complete the temple (Suet. Gaius 21). Certain
elements of the temple, such as Ionic capital fragments, architrave fragments,
corner capitals with busts of deities, and the frieze with Medusa heads, date
to the second century A.D., and are witness to the intermittent periods of construction
at the temple over the centuries. In A.D. 262/3 the temple was besieged by Goths,
who failed to capture it. In the Byzantine period a basilica was constructed above
the adyton. Later, the eastern part of the temple was converted into a fort. In
1493, an earthquake caused the collapse of all but three of the structure's columns.
Other Notes:
The monumental Temple of Apollo at Didyma contains numerous features worthy of
note, ranging from the unusually elaborate treatment of various architectural
elements, to certain complications of design which are interpreted in the light
of the oracular function of the temple. The pilaster capitals of the interior
walls of the adyton are varied in design, with an enclosed panel decorated with
griffins, vertical palmettes, or acanthus foliage; these capitals probably date
to the early second century B.C. Between the pilaster capitals ran a frieze of
griffins and lyres, similarly dating to the second century B.C. The use of Corinthian
engaged and free-standing columns in the adyton east wall and the east chamber
is an example of the use of the Corinthian order to provide interior accents,
and underscored the organic nature of much of the decoration of the temple. The
bases of the two rows of ten columns across the east facade are treated in diverse
ways, including dodecagonal bases with panels depicting Nereids and sea creatures
or foliage; circular discs with meanders, laurel leaves, etc. These bases probably
date to the second century A.D. The ceilings of the two staircases preserved in
the east chamber are carved with a meander pattern, on which traces of red and
blue paint can still be discerned. These meanders may have some connection with
the function of the stairs, which are referred to as labyrinths in the building
accounts. In spite of these complexities of design, the temple of Apollo at Didyma
employed a system of proportions based on the standard interaxial spacing; measurements
of the elevation were related to this interaxial proportion. Such a design principle
may reflect the influence of such regular, ordered plans as that of the Temple
of Athena at Priene .The high threshold of the opening in the pronaos is interpreted
as a sort of stage from which the prophetess may have given oracular pronouncements.
The low level of the interior of the adyton relative to the stylobate may have
been dictated by the presence of the sacred spring in the adyton, an essential
feature of the oracular cult. It is known that laurel groves grew in the open-air
adyton, although eventually this area was also paved. An additional structure
referred to in building accounts and no doubt connected with the oracle is the
Chesmographion, also known as the Prophet's House. Although the exact location
of this structure is not known, it stood within the temenos, and, as its name
implies, may have been the site where oracular responses were written down. In
seeking to explain the complexities of the design of the temple, scholars have
seen the influence of Iranian palace architecture (Fehr 1972, 14-59) or Ptolemaic
temples and residences (Parke 1986, 128, 131 n.31).
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 47 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΜΙΛΗΤΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Miletus
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Council house consisting of a rectangular hall with semi-circular
rows of seats, a peristyle courtyard in front, and a propylon; located in the
city center between the north agora and the south agora.
Date: ca. 175 B.C. - 164 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The complex consists of three main elements: a propylon at the east facade, a
rectangular courtyard with interior colonnade around its north, east and south
sides, and the bouleuterion or council hall located at the west (rear) of the
complex. The propylon had four prostyle Corinthian columns in front of antae;
an additional two Corinthian columns, corresponding to the central two of the
facade, stood in the Doric colonnade of the courtyard. The bouleuterion itself
is a rectangular hall, oriented roughly north-south. It was entered via four doors
from the courtyard to the east, and through two doorways in the west wall. Within
the hall are eighteen rows of stone seats, slightly greater than a semi-circle.
Four radiating flights of steps provide access to the seats from the orchestra
area; additional stairs lead to the upper seats from the rear corners of the building.
The seating capacity was ca. 1200-1500. Two pairs of Ionic columns on pedestals
originally helped support the roof; later, wooden posts were added.
History:
The building complex is securely dated to the years 175 - 164 B.C., through the
evidence of two dedication inscriptions preserved on the architrave of the bouleuterion
itself and the architrave of the propylon. The inscription records that two brothers,
Timarchos and Herakleides, dedicated the building, on behalf of Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
to Apollo of Didyma, Hestia Bulaia and the demos of Miletus. Restorations and
renovations to the bouleuterion include the following: an additional door added
in the east wall; the restoration of the rows of seats and the extension of the
rows to a horseshoe formation; and the erection of a structure in the center of
the courtyard. These restorations probably date to the Augustan period. In the
late empire, a mosaic floor was laid parallel to the east wall of the bouleuterion,
and the courtyard was paved with marble slabs. In the center of the Doric courtyard
is a monumental structure, most recently and convincingly interpreted as an altar,
not a funerary monument Tuchelt 1975, 91-140. The altar has a socle carved with
bucrania and garlands, a Corinthian colonnade in front of slabs carved with mythological
scenes, and a central flight of steps, in the tradition of Hellenistic altars
such as the Great Altar at Pergamon. The Miletus altar probably dates to the Augustan
period, and is associated with the emergence of the Imperial cult in the east.
Other Notes:
The text of the inscription from the architrave of the propylon (more complete
than that from the bouleuterion) is restored as follows: [TIMARCHO]SK[AIERAKLEIDE]SOIERAKLEIDOUUPERBAS[ILEOSA]NTIOCHOUEPIPHAN[OUSAPO]LLONIDIDUMEIKAIESTIAIBO[U]LAIAIKAITOIDEMOI
"Timarchos and Herakleides, sons of Herakleides, (dedicated the building) on behalf
of King Antiochus Epiphanes, to Apollo of Didyma, Hestia Bulaia, and the Demos."
A number of inscriptions from the Hellenistic and Roman periods are preserved
in the colonnade of the courtyard, and on the antae of the propylon: cf. Knackfuss
1908, 100-122. Fragments of two monumental marble tripods were found in the council
chamber and in the courtyard; they may have stood in the two rear corners of the
chamber, at the upper level. At the south end of the passageway inside the east
wall of the bouleuterion is a small underground chamber covered with a heavy marble
slab; the skeletons discovered inside it are probably later burials, and the excavators
interpret the chamber as a treasury. The construction of a bouleuterion as an
element of an architectural complex with a pronounced facade (the propylon) prefigures
developments in Roman architecture. The use of the elaborate Corinthian capitals
in the propylon suggests links with other Seleucid dedications in Asia Minor and
elsewhere in the Hellenistic period: for example, the Temple of Olympian Zeus
at Athens, the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, and the Temple of Zeus Olbios at Olba/Diokaisareia
(located in the sphere of Seleucid influence).
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Site: Miletus
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: The sanctuary of Apollo Delphinios is a rectangular temenos
enclosure bordered by two-aisled stoas at the north, east and south. The sanctuary
is situated to the north-east of the North Market of Miletus, close to the Lion
Harbor.
Date: ca. 340 B.C. - 320 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
In plan, the sanctuary consists of an open, rectangular temenos area with two-aisled
stoas at the north, east and south. The north and south porticoes were bisected
by a cross-wall. At the west, a wall with two doorways formed a boundary for the
temenos; the wall was later replaced by another portico. Within the temenos are
located semi-circular exedrae or votive benches, a round temple or monopteros
dating to the Roman period, and a rectangular altar.
History:
Since the cult of Apollo Delphinios is Cretan in origin, it is assumed that a
sanctuary existed at Miletus for the worship of Apollo Delphinios from the period
of the earliest settlers. There is literary evidence for a Delphinion at Miletus
in the sixth century B.C., Diogenes Laertius 1.29, although the earliest remains
at the site of the present Delphinion date to the fifth century B.C., and the
location and form of the archaic sanctuary are uncertain. The earliest preserved
remains at the Delphinion are the rectangular altar with volute acroteria, and
a number of marble round altars; these predate the Persian destruction of 494
B.C. It is thought that the round altars were collected from various locations
and brought to the Delphinion at this time. In the fifth century B.C., when Miletus
was rebuilt, the Delphinion took the form of a small rectangular enclosure of
ca. 30 x 45 m., which was bordered by stoas at the north and south. Fragments
of archaic building materials were reused. In the late fourth century B.C., the
sanctuary was renovated and enlarged, expanding to the east and now measuring
ca. 61 x 51 m. New two-aisled stoas with inner and outer colonnades of the Doric
order were built at the north, east and south sides, while the west side was closed
off with a wall. In the late Hellenistic period, the enclosure was made completely
peristylar with the addition of a one-aisled stoa at the west. In the mid-second
century A.D., a circular shrine or monopteros was constructed in the temenos,
and the porticoes were altered to single-aisled colonnades with Corinthian capitals.
A propylon was also erected in the middle of the west side.
Other Notes:
The annual Spring procession which went from Miletus to the Temple of Apollo at
Didyma began at the Delphinion. The architectural form of the sanctuary, an open
court, was appropriate for a gathering place and for the performance of sacrifices.
The numerous inscriptions (dating from the archaic to the late Roman periods)
preserved on the walls of the Delphinion indicate that the sanctuary also functioned
as the city archive. For the inscriptions, see Kawerau and Rehm 1914, 162-406.
One inscription Kawerau and Rehm 1914, no. 32 refers to the construction of a
"new" portico; the inscription is dated to ca. 340-320 B.C. and thus not only
provides a date for the construction of the Hellenistic porticoes but also indicates
that an earlier portico (or porticoes) stood on the site.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Fortification
Summary: A fortification wall containing curtains and towers, enclosing
the classical city of Miletus within the peninsula north of the Kalabaktepe.
Date: ca. 411 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
The late-fifth century circuit wall, preserved in the east, is zig-zag in plan;
it is unclear whether or not it contained towers. The southern cross wall, which
forms the southern boundary of classical Miletus, consists of indented traces
separated by square towers. There are eight curtains and nine square towers. The
excavators postulate that beyond the southern cross wall, ditches and outworks
further protected the wall, which ran across relatively open and level ground.
To the east and west, the fortification wall continues in a north-south direction,
punctuated by square towers and sections of indented trace. The fortification
wall also protected the city at the north. In places, the city wall contains chambers
interpreted either as storage rooms for artillery, or as guardrooms. Staircases
at intervals on the interior of the wall led to the various levels of the towers,
and to the parodos. Significant city structures, notably the theater and stadium,
are built into the city wall at the west. At the eastern extension of the southern
cross wall, a monumental gateway, the Sacred Gate, marked the entrance and exit
of the Sacred Way to Didyma. This Sacred Gate, in both its early and late phases,
consisted of an arcuated passageway flanked by monumental square towers. In the
eastern stretch of wall is the second monumental gateway of Miletus, the Lion
Gate.
History:
The history of the fortifications of Miletus is complex. A late Mycenaean wall,
dating to pre-1000 B.C., has been detected near the Harbor by the Theater. Early
fortifications protected the Kalabaktepe to the south of the peninsula of classical
Miletus; these archaic walls may date to ca. 650 B.C., and were restored after
ca. 550 B.C. The earliest circuit to enclose the classical city of Miletus is
dated between 411 and 402 B.C., at which time the wall also was extended to the
Kalabaktepe. The line of the first Sacred Gate reveals the line of the earliest
circuit wall; it is unclear whether this earliest circuit contained towers, as
at Priene, or not. The section of wall which is built into the theater predates
ca. 300 B.C. The best-preserved section of the city wall of Miletus, the southern
cross-wall, which protects the peninsula, was built in the Hellenistic period,
in ca. 200-190 B.C. This section underwent a significant restoration, originally
dated by von Gerkan 1935, 125 to ca. 88 B.C., but perhaps occurring as early as
ca. 150 B.C. Winter 1971, 278. At ca. 200-190 B.C., a new Sacred Gate was built
to the north of the old gate; its towers constituted the first towers in the southern
cross wall. In the first and second centuries A.D., the necessity for a defensive
wall was less great; however, alterations to the Sacred Gate continued, some of
its rooms functioning as part of the city's water supply system. In the late third
century A.D., incursions of invaders into Asia Minor led to the restoration of
the city wall. A section of wall dating to the time of Justinian extends along
the north of the Miletus,South Market . In the Byzantine period, sections of the
wall were rebuilt, and a castle was constructed incorporating the upper levels
of the theater.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stoa
Summary: A rectangular level area in the middle of the peninsula
of Miletus, near the Bay of Lions; gradually enclosed by stoas, forming a commercial
center for the city.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - A.D. 160
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
In plan, the North Market consists of a rectangular space enclosed at the north
and west by an L-shaped stoa, and at the south and west by a second L-shaped stoa.
Both stoas were one-aisled; the north stoa had rows of shops behind its north
and west wings, while the south stoa had none. In the middle of the west wall
of the Market stood a small building interpreted as a temple, with square cella,
deep pronaos and four Ionic prostyle columns. An enclosing wall, built later,
also ran along the east side of the Market, with a columnar gateway in the middle.
History:
The level area which the North Market occupies was set aside as a market location
during the rebuilding of Miletus following the Persian destruction. The earliest
building in the vicinity of the North Market is a rectangular structure built
of gneiss, located to the south-west of the market. This may have functioned as
the prytaneion in the fourth century B.C. In the late fourth century B.C., a long
stoa was built to the north, near the harbor (the so-called Stoa by the Harbor).
Probably at about the same date the first of the stoas of the North Market, the
north L-shaped stoa, was constructed. Behind this one-aisled L-shaped stoa to
the west was a peristyle court, which may have served as the first commercial
market for the city and probably constitutes the earliest market court in the
ancient world. There are no traces of building activity at the North Market in
the third century B.C. In the mid-second century B.C., an additional L-shaped,
one-aisled stoa was built, running along the south and west of the North Market.
Thus the market was now enclosed by a horseshoe-shaped complex of stoas. In the
mid-first century B.C. an enclosing wall with a central columnar gateway was built
along the east of the North Market; previously this area had remained open. In
the second century A.D. the east side of the North Market was more completely
enclosed by means of a row of rooms, most likely shops. Also dating to the Roman
period is the addition of an upper story to the south L-shaped stoa.
Other Notes:
A number of monuments from various periods were erected in the North Market: in
the center are the poros foundations of a square structure, probably the Market
Altar. In the north-west of the courtyard area are the foundations of an inscribed
stele, the so-called "Blood Inscription," dating to the fifth century B.C., in
which the overthrown oligarchs are proscribed (von Gerkan 1922, 100 no. 187).
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Site: Miletus
Type: Altar
Summary: Rectangular altar building with projecting staircase leading
to the altar terrace; located at the shore at ancient Cape Poseidon (modern Tekagac)
south of Miletus and ca. 7 km. distant from Didyma.
Date: ca. 575 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The altar building consists of two rectangular forms, the altar terrace itself
and the adjoining staircase of six steps. The altar is oriented to the east, and
the entrance via the staircase is at the west. The sacrificial altar itself stood
on the altar terrace, close to the east wall.
History:
The altar was constructed in the first half of the sixth century B.C. Strabo records
that it was built by Neleus, mythical founder of Miletus. Strabo 14.633. Although
this is apocryphal, it probably indicates that a cult to Poseidon existed at the
location since earliest times. The altar shows no evidence of restoration or reconstruction,
and probably stood intact until the Byzantine period, when an earthquake may have
damaged it extensively. Thereafter, the marble blocks of the superstructure were
taken away, probably by sea, for reuse elsewhere.
Other Notes:
A round marble statue base of archaic form was found in the vicinity of the altar.
Other small finds include coins, pottery fragments, and Hellenistic and Roman
glass fragments, indicating that dedications were made at the altar over a number
of centuries.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stoa
Summary: Rectangular market area in center of city, south of the
North Market and the Bouleuterion. Bordered at the east by a long portico, and
at the north and south by two L-shaped stoas.
Date: ca. 280 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
In plan, the South Market is a large, rectangular space defined by stoas. At the
east extends a long portico with three rows of rooms behind it; at the north is
a two-aisled L-shaped stoa without additional rooms; and at the south, a second
two-aisled L-shaped stoa with a single row of rooms behind the south wing.
History:
The planning of the South Market at Miletus dates to slightly later than the North
Market at Miletus . The first structure built here was the long east portico with
its three rows of shops; this building was most likely funded by Antiochos I in
the early third century B.C. Sometime in the third or second century B.C. the
two L-shaped stoas at the north and south were built, possibly in imitation of
the L-shaped stoas of the North Market. The north L-shaped stoa appears to have
been built before that in the south. The appearance of the South Market in the
late Hellenistic period evolved gradually, in a similar manner to the North Market,
and may not have been anticipated by fourth-century planners. Construction continued
at the South Market throughout the Roman period, most notably with the erection
of the monumental and elaborate Market Gate in the north-east corner. The Roman
restorations to the South Market had the effect of reducing the area to a fully
enclosed square, with the construction of gateways in the north-east and south-east
connecting the stoas.
Other Notes:
The interpretation of the South Market as the political agora of Miletus is open
to question, although statue bases of leading figures of the Hellenistic and Roman
periods were erected in the colonnades of the east portico. The east portico is
interpreted by the excavators as a shopping area, and may be the STOASTADIAIA"Stoa
of a stade," referred to in an inscription from Didyma. In the north east corner
of the South Market, underneath the location of the elaborate Market Gate dating
to the second century A.D., are the remains of a double Corinthian portico dedicated
to Laodike by the people of Miletus - probably Laodike II, wife of Antiochos II
(261-246 B.C.) The building is probably a Hellenistic fountain house. The South
Agora covered an area equivalent to twenty city blocks or insulae at the site,
and was designed to conform to the grid pattern city plan.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Stadium
Summary: A rectangular stadium, without curved ends, located in
the west of the peninsula of Miletus, to the south of the Harbor by the Theater.
Date: ca. 166 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The stadium conforms to the grid of the city plan of Miletus, and is oriented
east-west. The stadium consists of two rectangular blocks of seats which flank
the central arena or running track. At the west is a distyle in antis propylon
of Ionic order, on seven steps, built on axis with the stadium and linking it
to an unexcavated building; at the east, a monumental double colonnade of eight
monolithic Corinthian columns dates to the late Roman period.
History:
The stadium was constructed during the reign of Eumenes II, in the first half
of the second century B.C. The unexcavated building to the west of the stadium
is a gymnasium, tentatively named the Gymnasium of Eumenes II, connected to the
stadium by a propylon; thus the stadium, propylon and gymnasium originally constituted
a building complex dating to ca. 160 B.C. In the first century B.C., the northern
parodos wall of the stadium was renovated, and at this time a second series of
starting blocks was laid down at the east and west ends of the arena. In the Trajanic
or Antonine period, the gymnasium at the west end of the stadium was restored,
as was the propylon, and there were further renovations at the east end of the
stadium, notably the staircase leading up to the rows of seats. In the third century
A.D. a monumental double-colonnaded gateway with Corinthian columns was built
across the east end of the stadium. In the sixth century A.D. the new fortifications
of Miletus incorporated the stadium into their circuit.
Other Notes:
The fact that the stadium conforms to the grid plan of Miletus has led some scholars
to conclude that when the city was newly laid out in ca. 479 B.C., space was already
allocated for the stadium. The fact that the stadium was not constructed until
the second century B.C., however, is clear from its building inscription, architectural
details, and relationship to the gymnasium to the west. The stadium lacks the
curved ends or sphendone typical of stadia of the Roman period, and is similar
to the groundplans of the stadia at Olympia, Epidauros and Priene. Another similarity
between the stadium at Miletus and the Stadium at Priene is the form and arrangement
of the starting blocks or APHESIS, although their exact mechanism remains unclear.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Temple
Summary: Peripteral Ionic temple in south-west of city, constructed
on a terrace; unusual north-south orientation.
Date: ca. 480 B.C. - 450 B.C.
Period: Classical
Plan:
Only the foundations of the temple are preserved. Its reconstruction is, therefore,
hypothetical, and is based on probable proportions and assumed relationship to
the foundation walls, rather than on the evidence of preserved architectural elements.
The most recent proposal restores the groundplan as follows: above a massive terraced
structure stood the temple, with cella, deep pronaos, and peristyle of Ionic columns.
The temple was distyle in antis, with a dipteral facade of eight columns, and
fourteen columns along the flanks. The earlier reconstruction showing the temple
as 6 x 10 with a tall podium and frontal steps (von Gerkan 1925) is probably incorrect.
History:
Finds in the area such as pottery, votives of bronze and terracotta, and bronze
griffin protomes indicate that a sanctuary or cult center to Athena existed here
from at least the archaic period, if not even earlier. Buildings of the Mycenaean
and archaic period (houses?) are attested in the vicinity, but their relationship
to the temple is unclear. In the archaic period (7th c. B.C.) a smaller temple
to Athena was erected on the site, oriented east-west; this was destroyed when
the newer temple was built. Sometime in the fifth century B.C., the second temple
to Athena was built on the site, and its orientation was altered to conform to
the new city plan. In the late Hellenistic period, a peristyle house was built
adjacent to the temple peribolos at the west; in the Roman period, additions to
this house encroached even further on the temple area. In the Hellenistic period
the construction of the West Agora of Miletus, to the north of the Temple of Athena,
imposed further boundaries on the temple area. In the Imperial period, shops or
small workrooms were built to the east of the temple, and directly over the eastern
temple two vaulted rooms were constructed. It is unlikely that the temple was
still standing in the Roman Imperial period; it has been suggested that the temple
was systematically destroyed to provide construction material for the buildings
of the Roman period.Mallwitz 1975, 88.
Other Notes:
Although there is very little of the temple preserved beyond the foundations,
Mallwitz's reconstruction of the temple as an Ionic pseudodipteral temple with
dipteral facade, on a two- or three-stepped stylobate, seems much more convincing
than von Gerkan's reconstruction of the temple with 6 x 10 columns and a frontal
staircase. A podium temple with frontal steps would be unusual at this early date,
whereas Mallwitz's reconstruction not only is supported by the proportions of
the foundations, but also fits comfortably into the tradition of dipteral and
pseudo-dipteral Ionic temple architecture in Asia Minor.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Temple
Summary: Small archaic temple, oriented to the south, located on
the Kalabaktepe, north of the theater.
Date: ca. 525 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The temple is distyle in antis.
History:
The temple dates to the archaic period, to the late 6th century B.C., and did
not undergo later restorations.
Other Notes:
The terracotta simas of the pediment have an ovolo profile, painted alternately
red and black with white darts; above the ovolo is a painted chevron and meander
design, and below the ovolo is a painted astragal painted red and white with rectangular
beads. The terracotta antefixes are molded with Medusa heads, lion's heads and
lotus flowers in relief above a guilloche design.
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Site: Miletus
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater with horseshoe-shaped cavea, and stage-building
of many different periods; built into a hill between the Bay of Lions and the
Theater Harbor.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 133 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
The cavea of the theater originally consisted of three tiers each containing twenty
rows of seats; the lowest tier is divided into five cunei or wedges by stairs,
the second tier into ten wedges, and the upper tier had twenty wedges. This uppermost
tier was destroyed with the construction of a mediaeval citadel in this location.
The stage building underwent numerous transformations from the fourth century
B.C. to the late third century A.D.; a significant feature of the plan of the
theater is the incorporation of the rear wall of the stage building into the circuit
of the city walls.
History:
The stage building and the cavea of the theater underwent significant transformations
over time. Although the preserved remains date to the Roman period, the Hellenistic
phases of construction are understood. Four phases of construction of the Hellenistic
stage building have been recognized. The earliest skene, dating to ca. 300 B.C.,
was built along the line of the city wall. This skene may have had an upper story
or episcenium, but had no central door in its lower story, only two flanking doors.
There is no archaeological evidence for a proscenium for this first stage building,
but the excavators propose a proscenium articulated with Doric half-columns and
pilasters, via analogy with the proscenium of the Theater at Priene . Shortly
after the construction of the first stage building (ca. 300-250 B.C.) alterations
were carried out, resulting in a much longer skene. During this period, there
were four doors in the lower story and three in the upper story. The proscenium
at this phase is reconstructed as being wider than the stage building, and having
a facade articulated by 16 columns, although this is hypothetical. The third phase
of construction, dated by the excavators to sometime before the mid-second century
B.C., resulted in significant changes to the stage building: a central door was
opened in the lower story, the entire skene was widened again through the addition
of wings at left and right, and the facade of the upper story was opened up with
the addition of wide doors or thyromata. This change was probably prompted by
the alteration in dramatic action which occurred at this time; the Theater at
Priene also experienced similar renovations to accommodate the demands of New
Comedy. With the shift of action from the circular orchestra to the roof of the
stage building, the facade of the upper story of the stage building became the
backdrop for the action. Five large doorways or thyromata were opened up in this
third phase; these doors were the location of stage scenery, and allowed the actors
to enter and exit. Wooden stairs at left and right allowed access to this upper
level. There is no direct evidence for alteration of the proscenium of the third
stage - the existing proscenium may have been widened to accord with the greater
dimensions of the stage building. The final Hellenistic stage building was probably
necessitated by the need to provide an adequate logeion. Again, the entire stage
building was widened. Only the central doorway of the lower story was left open;
the others were filled in, making the chambers of the lower story inaccessible
and emphasizing their function now as only the substruction for the more important
upper story. Stone steps which led up to the logeion, and which were originally
thought to belong to the fourth construction phase, are now known to date to the
Roman period. The basic outline of the seats in the lower tiers of the cavea is
thought to date to the Hellenistic period, although little is preserved of the
Hellenistic cavea. In the Flavian period and again in the late second century
A.D. the stage building was further elaborated.
Other Notes:
The theater in its Roman phase represented one of the largest in Asia Minor, with
a seating capacity for ca. 15,000 people. Sculptural decoration from the Hellenistic
theater, possibly from the second skene, includes relief blocks carved with Macedonian
shields and other weapons. A frieze depicting hunting erotes is ascribed to the
School of Aphrodisias, and is dated to the third century A.D.
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ΠΡΙΗΝΗ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Priene
Type: Fortification
Summary: Continuation of city wall circuit at north, east and west
of acropolis, with towers.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
The acropolis fortification wall uses straight stretches of curtain, not the saw-toothed
design of the lower fortification walls. Square towers project at intervals along
the exterior of the wall. In the north of the acropolis, a gateway is protected
by flanking walls and hollow, two-storied towers.
History:
Like the fortifications of the lower city, the acropolis fortifications date back
to the city's foundation in the mid-fourth century B.C. A round tower at the northern
extension of the acropolis dates to the Byzantine period.
Other Notes:
The acropolis fortifications contain four hollow, inhabitable towers which served
as living quarters for the guard; an inscription indicates that the captain of
the garrison may not leave his post on the acropolis for the entire period of
his duty, one year.
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Site: Priene
Type: House or sanctuary
Summary: Large house-type structure with central courtyard, located
in western section of city, in third housing quarter from west gate; site of possible
cult.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A central courtyard is bordered on north, east and south by rooms; the entrance
is in the west wall. The northern room, containing a stone podium, is entered
through a colonnaded pronaos and is two-aisled; three smaller rooms open onto
the court in the east; in the south are two additional rooms, built above cellars.
History:
The basic plan of the complex may date back to the fourth century B.C. and may
represent a substantial private dwelling which was subsequently converted into
a sanctuary or cult center; or, it may have been planned as a sanctuary from the
outset. Later construction phases are in evidence: the long northern room with
central colonnade was divided into two by a cross-wall running north-south, and
a second doorway was opened into this room. The mosaic floor of the northern room
of the eastern row was obscured by later wall construction. The renovations and
restorations probably date to the second century B.C.
Other Notes:
A 1.90 m. tall doorpost at the main entrance to the structure is inscribed with
the following text: elache te hierosun[en:] Anaxidemos Apollon[iou:] eisinai eis
[to] hiero hagno e[n] estheti leuk[ei.] "Anaxidemos, son of Apollonios, received
the priesthood to enter the holy temple in white clothing." Inside the northern
room, near the podium, were discovered a number of terracottas (bust of Cybele,
Eros and female, bearded Herm) and marble figurines, including a bearded Herm
and a bust of Alexander the Great. Also near the podium stood a marble offering
table, in front of which a natural fissure in the bedrock forms a pit. This pit
is interpreted as a sacrificial pit through analogy with that in the Sanctuary
of Demeter. Architecturally, the entire complex in no way resembles a typical
Greek sanctuary. This divergence from public cult architecture leads to the suggestion
that the structure was essentially a private cult center. If it was initially
a private house, it may have been the one in which Alexander the Great stayed
when he spent some time in Priene in 334 B.C.
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Site: Priene
Type: Altar
Summary: Rectangular altar located 12.35 m. east of the Temple of
Athena, on axis with the temple.
Date: ca. 325 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A low, rectangular altar standing on two steps; its sides were probably decorated
with half-column pilasters between which are a series of low podia, supporting
twenty relief panels. In the relief panels were carved draped female figures,
almost certainly Muses, and a figure of Apollo Kitharoidos. The columns supported
an entablature consisting of an architrave crowned by an ovolo and dentil, with
cornice course of Ionic geison with ovolo crown, and finally a cyma recta. The
relief panels and columns essentially formed a screen wall around the three sides
of the altar platform on which the sacrifices took place.
History:
The history of the altar is difficult to reconstruct with certainty. The dating
of the sculptures, based on stylistic considerations, has resulted in dates ranging
from the late third century to the mid-second century B.C. There is general agreement
that the altar is of later date than the temple itself, and the most recent analysis
suggests that the altar reliefs were carved in the late third century B.C. The
architectural style of the altar itself, however, is consistent with an earlier
date, in the second half of the fourth century, leading some to conclude that
the altar was planned at this time, but not actually executed until later. When
the temple was rededicated to Athena and Augustus in the late first century B.C.,
this rededication was also recorded on the architrave of the altar.
Other Notes:
The altar was first discovered by Pullan and briefly described in his Antiquities
of Ionia, IV (1881). The reconstruction of the altar as low and rectangular in
form was first suggested by Schrader (1904); this reconstruction was challenged
by Dorpfeld and von Gerkan (1924), who viewed the altar as similar in plan to
the Great Altar at Pergamon. By analogy with the Pergamon monument, the Priene
altar was thus dated to some time after the mid-second century B.C. Recent analysis
of Pullan's excavation notes and photographs, and the discovery of additional
relief fragments, has led Carter (1983) to confirm Schrader's initial reconstruction
of the monument as a low altar. The Pergamon analogy is thus erroneous, and the
style of the reliefs may also suggest an earlier date, that is, in the last quarter
of the third century B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Bouleuterion
Summary: Bouleuterion or meeting hall in center of city, next to
the Prytaneion; oriented to the south.
Date: ca. 200 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Almost square in plan, the bouleuterion contains rows of seats on its west, north
and east sides: 16 rows on the north, and ten each on the west and east. The south
wall contains a rectangular niche or exedra with arched roof. Stepped aisles lead
diagonally up to the rows of seats from the central floor area, or "orchestra,"
in which stands a marble altar. Regularly-spaced piers, six on each of the north,
west and east sides, would have supported the wooden roof. The building was entered
through doorways in the north, west, and south walls.
History:
Construction of the bouleuterion began in ca. 200 B.C. During a later phase of
reconstruction, the span of the roof was judged to be too wide, and the piers
were accordingly brought closer to the center. Buttresses were also added between
the piers and the side walls. The building was destroyed - probably by fire -
at some time during the Christian period; beyond the north-west corner of the
bouleuterion, a small chapel was built, and traces of Christian burials were discovered
near the north wall.
Other Notes:
The bouleuterion provided seating for 600-700 people, a large number considering
the population of Priene. Thus it may have been an Ekklesiasterion, or meeting
hall for the Assembly of citizens, rather than a bouleuterion or meeting hall
for council members alone. The exedra in the south wall, with its arcuated lintel,
also served as a light well for the bouleuterion; it is uncertain whether additional
windows existed higher in the walls.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Fortification
Summary: Well-preserved fortification wall circuit with towers,
enclosing the site and the acropolis hill in the north.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 340 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
In plan, the walls are of saw-tooth design, with square towers at intervals. The
majority of the towers are solid, but there are hollow, two-storied towers which
served as barracks for the guards. The wall includes in its circuit three city
gates, the East Gate, West Gate, and South-East Gate. The East Gate, the main
entrance to the city, was vaulted with a limestone arch and was reached from the
outside by a long, paved ramp. Two curving walls inside the gate created a horseshoe-shaped
court within which an attacking force would be trapped. The West Gate was also
arched; no towers protected this gate, but the steep topography provided adequate
defense. The South-East Gate was protected by a tower from which a defending force
could fire on the enemy's unprotected right flank. In two locations in the lower
city wall, and once on the acropolis, staircases are preserved which led to a
defensive walkway.
History:
The construction of the fortifications at Priene is contemporary with the new
foundation of the city in ca. 350 B.C.
Other Notes:
Built into the west facade of the South-East Gate is an inscription, contemporary
with the construction of the wall, preserving the following text: hupnotheis Philios
Kuprios genos exalaminos huios Aristonos Naolochon eiden onar thesmophorous te
hagnas potnias em pharesi leokois: opsesi d' en trissais heroa tonde sebein enogon
poleios phulakog choron t' apedeixan: hon heneka hidrusen tonde theio Philios.
"When asleep, Philios Kyprios (of Cyprus?) of the Exalaminos family (?), son of
Ariston of (?) Naolochos, saw in a dream holy reverend Thesmophoroi in white cloaks.
And in three visions they ordered him to honor this hero of the guard of the city
and they showed him the spot. Wherefore Philios established this sanctuary." The
use of the saw-tooth wall design, combined with the contours of the land, would
have compelled an attacking force to concentrate their attack on the projecting
towers. The saw-tooth wall design is referred to by Philo 86.3 as PRIONOTE. The
towers were not bonded into the wall, and thus, if they collapsed, they would
not destroy the adjacent wall circuit. The presence of a tower at the proper left
of the South-East Gate would have enabled a defending force to fire on the unprotected
right flank of an approaching enemy force.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Gymnasium
Summary: Gymnasium adjacent to stadium, below center of city, inside
southern city wall
Date: ca. 130 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Square central palaestra surrounded by colonnades; double colonnade in north,
leading to a row of at least five rooms; in the west, an additional row of four
rooms and the monumental entrance to the complex. The colonnade in the north was
two-storied.
History:
An inscription found in the North Stoa of Priene and dating to the mid-second
century B.C. refers to the construction of a new gymnasium, the lower gymnasium.
Funding for the new building was delayed until ca. 130 B.C., when two brothers,
Moschion and Athenopolis, donated considerable funds for its construction. Graffiti
of Republican date indicate that the gymnasium was still in use at this time.
Unlike many Hellenistic gymnasia of Asia Minor, it was not converted into a bath
building in the Roman Imperial period.
Other Notes:
Typologically, the lower gymnasium combines the characteristics of a simple, square
palaestra surrounded by Doric colonnades, with characteristics reminiscent of
agora architecture, here represented by the double colonnade in the north leading
to the Ionic facade of the schoolroom or ephebeum. The lower gymnasium forms part
of a complex together with the adjacent stadium, although there are differences
in their level and orientation. In some respects the gymnasium at Priene accords
with Vitruvius' description of a typical Greek palaestra, surrounded by colonnades
to provide shelter from inclement weather, and with rooms for instruction, washing
and philosophical discussion behind the colonnades.Vitr. De Arch. 5.11.1-2
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Propylon
Summary: Monumental entrance to the Athena Sanctuary, oriented east-west;
not aligned with central axis of temple.
Date: ca. 25 B.C. - A.D. 1
Period: Roman
Plan:
In the east, six steps lead from the street level to a courtyard articulated by
tetrastyle porticoes at the front and rear; a transverse wall with central door
crosses the west end of the propylon.
History:
The propylon belongs to a later date than the construction of the temple, probably
to the period of Augustus, when interest in the Sanctuary was renewed with the
rededication to Athena and Augustus. The structure was never completed - bosses
remain on the columns of the west front and the paving was never smoothed.
Other Notes:
The propylon is not aligned with the central axis of the Temple but instead is
situated slightly to the south, providing a visitor to the Sanctuary with a view
of the south-east corner of the Altar and the Temple. Pilaster capitals decorated
with acanthus decoration, once believed to have articulated the interior walls
of the propylon, are now thought to have come from at least four free-standing
pilaster monuments, which once supported bronze statues, and which stood between
the south wall of the temple and the south stoa. One of the Ionic column capitals
(now in the British Museum) preserves the compass marks used in designing the
volute.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene Sarah Cormack, ed.
Type: Prytaneion
Summary: Meeting house and dining room for senate members, adjacent
to bouleuterion, in center of city.
Date: ca. 180 B.C. - A.D. 150
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
The building in its present state takes the form of a peristyle house: a rectangular
structure with central paved, colonnaded courtyard surrounded by three small rooms
on the north, two on the west and three on the south sides. The building was entered
through a door in the north wall of the central room in the south row.
History:
The preserved remains date to the Roman Imperial period, but an older building
existed on the site. Elements which belong to the earlier, Greek building are
the walls of the three rooms in the north, a stretch of east-west wall dividing
the two rooms in the west, a short stretch of north-south wall in the south, and
two very fragmentary walls in the east. It is uncertain whether the earlier structure
had a central peristyle. A hearth in the south-east room is also identified as
belonging to the Greek period.
Other Notes:
At the entrance to the southernmost room of the western row stands a reused column
shaft carved with the following inscription: he lamprotate Prieneon Ionon polis
kai <hek>r[atiste] boule kai to philosebaston sunedrion t
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Site: Priene
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two-aisled stoa located in the north of the agora in the
center of the city.
Date: ca. 160 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A two-aisled stoa facing south, with 15 rooms (shops) extending for ca. 76 m.
from west end of stoa in the rear (north); closed side walls. 49 columns form
the exterior colonnade, with 24 in the interior. A flight of six steps connects
the stoa to the agora below.
History:
Although the market clearly constituted an early element of Priene's town plan,
the Sacred Stoa itself was not built until the middle of the second century B.C.
The form of the building which must have occupied this location before the construction
of the Sacred Stoa is not known, although the excavators postulate that a shorter
stoa, possibly equal in length to the stoa along the south of the agora, stood
here, based on the following evidence: the rear (north) wall of the rooms of the
Sacred Stoa is the earliest element of the structure, and may once have formed
the rear wall of an older stoa without rear rooms. Furthermore, the eastern section
of the flight of six steps connecting the agora to the level of the stoa is of
later construction, containing reused blocks; this suggests that the original
stoa which stood here was shorter than the Sacred Stoa, and that the staircase
was extended when the longer Sacred Stoa was constructed. This reconstruction,
postulating an earlier structure, has been rejected by one scholar, Miller 1978,
123-124, who argues that the Sacred Stoa itself may well date to the fourth century
B.C. The new stoa of the second century B.C., in its extended form, would have
concealed the facades of the Bouleuterion and Prytaneion to the east. In the Imperial
period, one of the rear rooms was probably dedicated to the cult of Roma.
Other Notes:
A fragmentary text inscribed on the architrave of the exterior colonnade refers
to the donor of the building: [-- BASIL]EOS ARI[ARATHOU --] The text was restored
by the excavators as follows: basileus Orophernes basil]eos Ari[arathou... "King
Orophernes, son of King Ariarathes...." In this reading, the Cappadocian ruler
Orophernes, significant benefactor of other structures at Priene (including notably
the cult statue of the Temple of Athena) would have been responsible for the construction
of the Sacred Stoa in ca. 155 B.C. An alternative restoration of the inscription
is as follows: [huper basil]eos Ari[arathou Epiphanous kai Philopatoros] restoring
as the benefactor of the stoa Ariarathes VI, and providing a terminus post quem
of ca. 130 B.C. Some have suggested, however, that the inscription may not belong
to the stoa, and furthermore that the block on which it is inscribed may not be
an architrave, but rather a statue base: Miller 1978, 122-23. Miller would prefer
to date the Sacred Stoa, and indeed the entire insula of which it forms a part,
to the fourth century B.C. The title of the building is derived from an inscription
carved on the west end wall: the inscription, of post-Mithradatic date, honors
one Aulus Aemilius Zosimos and refers to the inscribing of the decree en tei hierai
stoai tei en tei agorai "in the Sacred Stoa in the Agora," leading some scholars
to suggest that one of the exedrae incorporated into the northern row of shops
functioned as a cult center for Dea Roma already in the second century B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Temple
Summary: Temple, altar, and sacrificial pit situated within temenos
enclosure north of city center, at foot of acropolis.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The rectangular temenos enclosure is oriented east-west, with an entrance in the
east wall. The central court of the temenos was left free for cult activities.
Against the rear (west) wall of the temenos stands the temple building, of unusual
form: behind the east-facing pronaos is a cella which is wider than it is long,
and which narrows towards the south. Two small rooms open off the cella to the
north. The pronaos does not extend for the entire length of the cella, nor is
the cella door centered between the columns of the pronaos. A door leads from
the pronaos to the sacrificial pit in the south.
History:
Construction of the sanctuary began sometime in the late fourth century B.C. Some
features of the sanctuary are of Roman date and attest to continuity of use: the
altar near the entrance is Roman, and later walls of uncertain purpose were built
within the temenos.
Other Notes:
An altar of Roman date stood inside the temenos near the north wall. Outside the
entrance were found two statue bases, one for a bronze statue and one for a marble
statue. The latter is preserved, and depicts the priestess Nikeso, although the
possibility that it represents Demeter herself is not to be discarded. The inscription
is dated to ca. 300-250 B.C. von Gaertringen 1906, no. 173.The podia inside the
temple cella represent bases for dedications to the goddess; some contain cuttings
for the placement of statues. Also preserved in the cella of the temple are marble
offering tables. Numerous terracotta figurines of a style dating to the fourth
century B.C. were discovered in the sanctuary; they represent draped females,
sows, and grotesques (fertility figures).
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: Walled sanctuary containing large altar, situated in eastern
sector of city on a massive terrace wall.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 100 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
The rectangular temenos enclosure contains a large rectangular altar oriented
north-south; a propylon provides access in the northern wall; a portico stood
along the west wall. The altar itself was reached via a staircase in the south;
the steps projected in the manner of Italian podium temple staircases. There appears
to have been no significant superstructure on top of the altar.
History:
The original plan of the sanctuary, dating to the late fourth or third century
B.C., was very simple: a rectangular temenos entered from the east, containing
an altar. At a later date, a more elaborate propylon was built in the northern
wall of the temenos, and a portico was constructed alongside the west wall. Both
of these additions may still be pre-Roman. Traces of houses dating to the Middle
Ages are found in the northern area of the sanctuary.
Other Notes:
A number of inscriptions (two from altars, one from an anta) make certain the
identification of the complex as a sanctuary of the Egyptian Gods. The altars
are inscribed as follows: Isidos; Sarapidos; Anoubidos., "Of Isis, of Serapis,
of Anubis." The letter forms of this inscription are dated to the third century
B.C. A second, round altar carries the following text: Xa[nthippou] neokoron Sarapidi
Isidi Anoubidi Harpokratei Heraklei Aniketoi. "Of the neocorate of Serapis, Isis,
Anubis, Harpokrates, Herakles Unconquerable..."
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Stadium
Summary: Stadium with seating and colonnade along north; located
directly inside the south wall of the city, adjacent to the lower gymnasium.
Date: ca. 130 B.C. - 120 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Running track which was square at both ends (not U-shaped), with starting gates
in west; spectators' seats in north only (due to slope of land); above the seats,
a flat terrace with Doric colonnade behind.
History:
The stadium was probably constructed at the same date as the adjacent gymnasium
to the west, in ca. 130 B.C. The present building may have replaced an earlier
structure. Evidence of restoration at a later date is provided by the construction
of an elaborate starting gate with engaged Corinthian pilasters, directly behind
the simpler marble starting blocks of the Hellenistic period. Also at a later
date a 0.50 m. thick mortar wall was erected in front of the first row of seats.
Other Notes:
It is still unclear exactly how the starting gates of the stadium functioned,
and whether or not there was a mechanical device to ensure that the runners started
together. No trace has been found of a turning post in the eastern end of the
stadium. A 3.50 m. wide staircase led down to the level of the running track from
the terrace above, in the west near the doorway to the gymnasium. At the lower
level are the foundations of a marble altar.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Stoa
Summary: One-aisled stoa facing south, forming southern extremity
of Sanctuary of Athena Polias.
Date: ca. 200 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
One-aisled stoa facing south
History:
The construction of the south stoa belongs to a later phase than that of the temple
itself, sometime after the third century B.C. The north wall of the stoa was built
over statue bases from the sanctuary.
Other Notes:
The intercolumniation of the colonnade is calculated at 2.34 m., resulting in
a row of 32 columns. The dimensions of the south stoa are similar to those of
the stoa by the stadium at Priene. Like the columns of the stadium stoa, the south
stoa columns were unfluted for a height of 1.30 m.; above this they were faceted.
A door is postulated in the closed rear wall of the stoa, to provide access to
the sanctuary and temple.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Temple
Summary: Temple of Athena, in the sanctuary of Athena; built on
a high terrace near the middle of the city
Date: ca. 340 B.C. - 150 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
Hexastyle peripteral temple with eleven columns on the sides; distyle in antis,
with pronaos, cella and opisthodomos. The Ionic foot (0.295 m.) is used as a unit
of measurement throughout. The total column height and entablature height equal
50 feet, corresponding to half the length of the cella. The cella, of 100 feet,
is thus a hekatompedon, and corresponds closely with the length of the cella of
the Parthenon.
History:
Begun ca. 340 B.C.; dedicated by Alexander the Great in 334 B.C., when the east
end of the temple was completed at least up to the anta. The date of completion
of the entire temple is uncertain - some have detected two distinct building phases,
the latter falling in the mid-second century, while others maintain that the temple
was substantially complete by the last quarter of the fourth century B.C. The
cult statue, a version of the Athena Parthenos, was not installed until ca. 158
-156 B.C., and was probably dedicated by the Cappadocian ruler Orophernes. After
27 B.C., the sanctuary was rededicated to Athena Polias and Augustus, and continued
as an important cult center throughout the Imperial period. The transformation
of the opisthodomos into a closed space - perhaps a small treasury - may belong
to this Roman phase; other scholars date the moldings of the new door of the opisthodomos
to the second century B.C., that is, to a second phase of construction. The temple
was used as a church in the Byzantine period.
Other Notes:
Text of inscription on south anta: basileus Alexandros anetheke to nao Athenaiei
Poliadi. "King Alexander dedicated the temple to Athena Polias." (Text in von
Gaertringen 1906, no. 156) Text of architrave inscription rededicating temple
to Athena Polias and Augustus: ho demos Athenai [P]oliadi kai [aut]o?kratori Kaisari
theou huioi theoi Sebasto[i kathierosen] "The people dedicated it to Athena Polias
and to the divine emperor Caesar Augustus, son of the god." (Text in von Gaertringen
1906, no. 157). The entire temple was designed on a modular system based on 6
x 6 feet (Ionic foot = 0.295 m.) The overall dimensions of the temple platform
equal 66 x 126 feet; the column bases measure 6 feet wide and are 6 feet apart.
The temple may thus be regarded as an attempt at canonization of the Ionic order.
A striking feature of the temple, thought to be an innovation of the architect,
is the use of coffers carved in relief with mythological scenes (gigantomachy
with participation of Amazons), located in the ceiling of the peristyle.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Temple
Summary: Small temple at east of agora, oriented to the east; not
accessible from agora.
Date: ca. 300 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A tetrastyle prostyle temple with closed cella and without opisthodomos, situated
in a small temenos enclosure bordered by Doric stoas; entered from the east.
History:
The temple was constructed in the late fourth or early third century B.C. There
is little evidence for its later history.
Other Notes:
The temenos enclosure also contained dedications to Hera, Pan and Asklepios; an
inscription found near the temenos referring to the Asklepieion led the excavators
to their initial identification of the temple. Elements of the entablature are
completely preserved: a three-fascia architrave without frieze, surmounted by
dentils, sima and geison decorated with lions' head waterspouts and lotus and
palmette chain. The decoration was clearly influenced by that of the Temple of
Athena Polias, although there are differences in proportions.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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Site: Priene
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater of Greek type with orchestra, parodoi, and stage
building, located in the north of the city, below the acropolis and above the
upper gymnasium.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - A.D. 200
Period: Hellenistic/Roman
Plan:
The auditorium was greater than a semi-circle, with stone parodos walls. Seating
consisted of five cunei of seats with six staircases, with 22 tiers of seats in
the lower story and 25 in the upper. The stage building was rectangular and two-storied;
in front of it stood the proscenium, which was slightly longer than the stage
building itself. The facade of the proscenium was articulated by a one-storied
row of pillars with eleven intercolumniations. From the proscenium cross-beams
ran back to the stage building to support the flat wooden roof.
History:
The building history of the theater at Priene spans a number of centuries. Sometime
after the refounding of the city (ca. 350 B.C.), the seats of the auditorium and
the central orchestra were prepared (ca. 300 B.C.), at which time there may have
been a temporary wooden stage building. In ca. 200 B.C. marble seats were added
on the circumference of the orchestra; presumably the action still took place
in the central orchestra at this time. In the mid-second century B.C., a change
in the presentation of dramatic action, due to the influence of New Comedy, occurred:
the roof of the proscenium became the "stage", instead of the central orchestra.
Consequently, a stone proscenium was built at Priene in front of the stage building,
which also was reconstructed in stone. The roof of the proscenium became the floor
of the stage (the logeion), with the action taking place in front of the upper
story of the stage building (the episcenium). At this period the episcenium was
opened up with three large doors (thyromata) to accommodate the actors and hold
stage scenery. Statue bases dating to ca. 135 B.C. in front of the proscenium
provide a terminus ante quem for the construction of this feature. Marble benches
were constructed higher up in the auditorium, to afford a better view of the action.
To the late Hellenistic period should also be ascribed the walling-up of the intercolumniations
of the proscenium; painted panels hung here. In the Roman Imperial period, in
the second century A.D., the stage building was further articulated with a two-story
facade with three doors and two niches.
Other Notes:
Dating questions: an early document from the city, dated to ca. 330 B.C. refers
to seating rights; some have assumed that therefore the theater must have been
laid out by this time. Von Gerkan, however, prefers a date of ca. 300-250 B.C.,
based on his study of the stage building. Von Gerkan had argued that the proscenium
was part of the original structure of the theater, but such an early appearance
of this feature is not only unparalleled but also not supported by the archaeological
evidence. The proscenium at Priene must represent a later addition. A nicety of
design of the theater at Priene is the fact that the face of the proscenium stylobate
coincides with the side of a theoretical square inscribed within the circle created
by the orchestra, as prescribed by Vitruvius in his description of the Greek theater.
(Vitruvius De Arch. 5.7.1).A marble rectangular altar was found in the orchestra,
near its circumference; it is decorated with an Ionic entablature, and carried
the inscription: PUTHOTIMO[S]AGONOTh[ET...] The script dates the altar to the
early second century B.C. Numerous traces of polychromy indicate that the individual
elements of the proscenium were painted with blue and red.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
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ΣΜΥΡΝΗ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Site: Smyrna
Type: Fortification
Summary: Fortification wall surrounding perimeter of earliest settlement
on tell, later including the expanded city within its circuit.
Date: ca. 850 B.C. - 350 B.C.
Period: Geom./Arch./Clas.
Plan:
Circuit wall consisting of lower socle zone surmounted by a mudbrick superstructure.
Bastions or towers flanked the north-east city gate; in the second construction
phase, a second city gate, of overlap type without towers, may have existed in
the south east of the city.
History:
Four major construction phases of the city fortifications are identified by the
excavators, Walls 1, 2, 3 and 4. Wall 1, the Middle Geometric wall dating to ca.
850-800 B.C., enclosed the tell which formed the earliest settlement of the peninsula
site. In the Late Geometric period, the wall was entirely rebuilt, with construction
covering the period ca. 775-725 B.C. Wall 2 collapsed suddenly in ca. 700 B.C.,
probably the result of earthquake. Throughout the seventh century B.C., the city
expanded beyond the original tell, and may have been largely unfortified. Some
repairs to the destroyed Wall 2 took place in the seventh century, although it
was not until the end of the seventh century that Wall 3 was completed. Wall 3
may have been built in response to the threat of attack from the Lydian King Alyattes,
who built a massive siege mound at the north-west of the fortifications, and captured
Smyrna in ca. 600 B.C. After the sack, the fortifications lay in ruins. Wall 4,
the final series of fortifications at Smyrna, dates to the fourth century B.C.
The site was abandoned in the third quarter of the fourth century B.C.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Smyrna
Type: Temple
Summary: Temple of Athena located on terrace near north-east gate
of Old Smyrna, adjacent to the north fortification wall.
Date: ca. 700 B.C. - 590 B.C.
Period: Archaic
Plan:
The reconstruction of the temple building itself is open to question. The excavators
reconstruct the cella building as peripteral, but only on the south and west sides,
with 6 x 11 columns. The eastern facade is reconstructed without columns. The
interior of the cella may have contained one or two rows of columns, although
there are no traces of column bases inside the cella (Akurgal 1983, fig. 75).
This reconstruction has been questioned, however; an alternative reconstruction
shows the temple with 8 x 14 columns, including columns across the east facade
(Kuhn 1986, fig. 10). The northern wall of the temple appears to have been without
a colonnade, resulting in a temple with a peripteros around only three of its
sides. A stepped ramp approached the temple at the east. At the south, the terrace
or podium upon which the cella building stood was extended in two separate sections
(the so-called east and west terraces). Between these extensions, an additional
entrance or propylon to the temenos was formed. Stoas are reconstructed as standing
on the east and west terraces, based on the evidence of foundation walls, but
there is no evidence for colonnades.
History:
At the beginning of the seventh century B.C., an area at the north of the city,
adjacent to the city wall, was reserved as a sanctuary to the goddess Athena.
Due to the slope of the land, an artificial terrace was constructed, with a curved
corner at the south-west. The excavators of the site identify the following construction
phases: Phase I dates to the late geometric period (725-700 B.C.); to this phase
belong a 5.5 m. long stretch of wall, and a ca. 3 m. wide ramp which may have
led to the altar of the late geometric temple. Phase II (the "sub-geometric podium"):
between ca. 675-640 B.C., a monumental podium was constructed. Differences in
masonry technique indicate that this phase can itself be divided into two distinct
sequences. Phase III (the "Orientalizing" phase): the excavators date the erection
of the cella building, and its colonnades at west and south, to ca. 640 B.C. At
about this time, the podium was enlarged at the south and west. The foundations
of a rectangular structure inside the cella building are interpreted as a cult
base. At ca. 620-610 B.C., two additional terraces were built at the south of
the temple, to accommodate dedications (votive columns and statuary). At this
time, the ramp of the late geometric period (at the south of the temple) was altered,
flanked with side walls, becoming the main entrance to the temenos. In ca. 600
B.C., the Lydian king Alyattes captured Old Smyrna, and the temple, which may
have been unfinished, was destroyed. Almost immediately after this destruction
phase, however, the temple was restored, and the west terrace was extended even
further to the west. Numerous votive deposits from the period ca. 600 - 550 B.C.
indicate that the temple remained a center of cult activity. A barricade wall
across the main entrance to the temenos is associated with the Persian conquest
of ca. 545 B.C. The absence of any deposits or associated finds suggests that
the temple was abandoned after ca. 545 B.C. An alternative theory (Kuhn 1986)
argues that there is no evidence for the existence of the cella building prior
to ca. 600 B.C., or its destruction during the Lydian sack; therefore, the entire
peripteral temple may date to the first quarter of the sixth century B.C., after
the sack of Alyattes.
Other Notes:
The dedication of the temple to Athena seems secure, based on the evidence of
a bronze votive bar found during the excavations. The bar preserves the following
inscription: ARENTENDANETHEKENTEATHENAEEIOINOTIMOSPROTARCHO. A problematic feature
of the temple and its architectural remains is the restoration of the tufa capitals
(or bases) with a convex above a concave element, and decorated with two tiers
of floral ornament of lotus buds and flowers. Once interpreted as column bases
(Wesenberg 1971), it was then argued that their upper diameter was smaller than
the lower diameter of the column shafts, and therefore they must have appeared
at the top of the shaft. Since, however, the lower diameter of these mushroom-form
capitals is greater than the upper diameter of the column shaft fragments, it
is argued that they must belong to some as-yet unidentified columns and did not
form part of the architecture of the cella building itself. If they did belong
to free-standing votive columns located, for example, to the south of the temple,
these votive columns must then have been far taller than the columns of the temple
itself. In fact, there is no evidence for free-standing votive columns beyond
the evidence suggested by the discovery of the mushroom-shaped capitals (or bases).
Kuhn 1986, 39-80 finds this explanation unacceptable and restores the mushroom-shaped
elements as column bases. Perhaps equally problematic is the origin of the Aeolic
capital type, with vertical volutes separated by a palmette. Parallels have been
sought in Hittite, Egyptian, Assyrian and Syro-Palestinian architecture; it seems
likely that the Ionian Aeolic capitals reflect some Near Eastern influence, although
a direct prototype cannot be identified.
Sarah Cormack, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
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Building Catalog με παραπομπή στo Perseus
Project στα κάτωθι τοπωνύμια:
ΕΛΛΑΔΑ:
Αθήναι, Αιγόσθενα,
Αμφιάρειον, Αφαία,
Βάσσαι, Βραυρών,
Δελφοί, Δήλος,
Ελευσίς, Ερέτρια,
Ηραίον (Σάμου), Θέρμων,
Ιερό Ασκληπιού, Κέρκυρα,
Κόρινθος, Μάλια,
Μυκήναι, Οινόη,
Ολυμπία, Όλυνθος,
Πειραιεύς, Περαχώρα,
Σούνιον
ΙΤΑΛΙΑ:
Ακράγας, Γέλα,
Ηραίον, Μεταπόντιον,
Ποσειδωνία, Σελινούς,
Συρακούσαι
ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ:
Αλικαρνασός, Ασσος,
Δίδυμα, Μίλητος,
Πριήνη, Σμύρνη
ΑΛΙΚΑΡΝΑΣΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city and port
Summary: Capital of the Carian king and satrap Mausolus.
Physical Description:
In the 4th century B.C. Halikarnassos was a well fortified
large city arranged in ampitheater form around its natural harbor. The city was
laid out on a grid with major streets leading N from the harbor to the heights
of the acropolis. The harbor was enclosed by moles and a canal led to a second,
secret harbor which is believed to have been to the E of the main harbor. The
palace of Mausolus was located on the peninsula to the E of the harbor and the
Mausoleum was at the center of the city, N of the agora and the harbor. Additional
graves of the Hellenistic and Roman period are located within the city walls on
the S slope of the acropolis, beyond the theater.
Description:
According to tradition, Dorian colonists from Troezen settled
at Halikarnassos early in the Iron Age. They apparently occupied the territory
peacefully and intermarried with the local Carian population. Halikarnassos was
one of the three mainland cities of the Dorian Hexapolis. By the 5th century B.C.,
however, it had come under the cultural influence of Ionia to the N and no longer
belonged to the Dorian Hexapolis. The city was a composit of Carian and Ionian
elements and the earliest inscriptions from the city show no remaining traces
of a Dorian dialect. After the Persian conquest in the 6th century B.C., Halikarnassos
was ruled by a Carian dynasty centered at Mylasa. In 480 B.C. queen Artemisia
I, of Carian and Greek descent, personally led her forces on the side of the Persians
at the battle of Salamis and was one of Xerxes' most trusted advisors. Halikarnassos
became a member of the Delian League as a result of the Persian defeat. It again
came under Persian control after the King's Peace of 386 B.C. Mausolus became
satrap and king of Caria in 377 B.C. and was one of the most notable of the Carian
rulers. He moved the capital of Caria from Mylasa to Halikarnassos on the N shore
of the gulf of Kos, extended and strengthened the borders of Carian territory
and began a program to Hellenize his subjects. Halikarnassos itself was enclosed
by over 5 km of fortification walls and the population greatly enlarged by the
forced depopulation of other towns on the Myndos peninsula. The monumental building
program of Mausolus included a marble palace on the east side of the harbor and
the erection of his tomb in the center of the city. After the death of Mausolus
in 353 B.C., his wife-sister, Artemisia II, completed the tomb and defeated the
city of Rhodes. Halikarnassos was one of the few Anatolian cities to resist the
advance of Alexander the Great. In 334 B.C. Alexander sacked the city and appointed
Ada, an exiled member of the ruling Carian dynasty as the new queen. During the
Hellenistic period Caria was ruled in turn by the Ptolemies, the Seleucids, the
Macedonians, and the Rhodians. Under Roman rule the city was independent, but
not exceptionally prosperous. The city suffered under Verres in 80 B.C. and again
under Brutus and Cassius ca. 40 B.C. During the peace of the Roman Empire Halikarnassos
again prospered and it remained an important port into the medieval period. Halikarnassos
is most noted for the tomb of Mausolus The Mausoleum was enhanced by the leading
Greek sculptors of the century and was considered one of the seven wonders of
the ancient world. Halikarnassos was also the birthplace of Herodotus, the "father
of history" and the historian Dionysius.
Exploration:
The Mausoluem remained intact until the medieval period
when, perhaps following an earthquake, the stones of the structure were reused
in the construction of the castle of the Knights of St. John in the 15th century
A.D. The location of the tomb was rediscovered and investigated by Sir Charles
Newton in 1856. Modern excavations at the Mausoleum began in 1966 by a Danish
archaeological mission.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 26 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΑΣΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Troad
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: Important fortified city in the Troad.
Physical Description:
Located on a low volcanic hill on the S coast of the Troad
and ca. 11 km E of Lesbos, the fortified city of ca. 55 had occupied terraces
extending steeply down to its 2 artificial harbors. N of the acropolis more gradual
slopes lead down to the river Santioeis (modern Tuzla) and a large plain.
Description:
The acropolis of Assos was occupied in the Bronze Age,
but first began to expand in the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. when Aeolian colonists
from Methymna on Lesbos replaced the Carian inhabitants. In the 6th century B.C.
the city fell under Lydian and then Persian domination until it acquired independence
when, following the Persian Wars, it became a member of the Delian League. The
oldest extant architectural remains of the city date to the mid 6th century B.C.
and include the Doric temple of Athena on the acropolis, traces of domestic buildings,
and sections of fortification walls. The impressive and well preserved fortification
walls at Assos are ca. 5 km in circumference with many square and round towers,
2 major gateways and 7 smaller gates. The walls, which date to the mid 4th century
enclosed a large area to the N of the acropolis and all of the civic establishments
(gymnasium, theater, agora and stoas, bouleuterion) of the lower town, S of the
acropolis and extending down to the shore. The acropolis was separately fortified
and the city's S walls protected the 2 small artificial harbors. At the harbors
were facilities to transport ships overland in order to avoid the rough seas off
the Troad. From the city's main NW gate a broad paved road lead through the principal
necropolis to a 4th century B.C. stone bridge at the Satnioeis River, ca. 1 km
to the N. Assos reached its peak of fame in the 4th century B.C. In 365 B.C.,
under the banker-ruler Eubulus, it defended against a combined land and sea attack
launched by the Persian satrap Autophradates and King Mausolus of Halicarnassus.
In ca. 355-340 B.C., Hermias, the former eunuch-slave of Eubulus, ruled Assos
and invited his former fellow students from Plato's Academy (including Aristotle,
Xenocrates, Callisthenes, and Theophrastus) to join him in founding a philosophical
school at Assos. The city became, for a short period, one of the main centers
of culture in the Greek world. this came to an end in 341 B.C. when Hermias was
captured and executed by the Persians. After the death of Alexander, Assos fell
under the control of the Seleucids, then Pergamon, and finally in 133 B.C. Rome.
The city suffered commercial competition from Alexander Troas, but continued to
prosper through the Roman period. Later, its fortifications served to deter Gaul
and barbarian attacks.
Exploration:
Excavations: 1881-83, J. Clarke and F. Bacon, Archaeological
Institute of America.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 89 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΕΥΡΩΜΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: A minor city with one of the best preserved temples in
Anatolia.
Physical Description:
Located ca. 20 km SE of Lake Bafa and ca. 12 km N of ancient
Mylasa, Euromos stood on flat ground, encircled by a wall of Classical to Hellenistic
date. The city had a theater and a rectangular agora with colonnaded stoas on
each side. Just outside the city walls, to the S is the sanctuary and temple of
Zeus, one of the best preserved temples in Turkey. The present temple, which is
at least the 3rd built on that location is in the Corinthian style and dates to
the 2nd century A.D., but it was never completed. The temenos itself dates back
to as early as the 6th century B.C.
Description:
A Carian city, originally known as Kyromos or Hyromos,
it acquired the Hellenic name Euromos in the 4th century B.C. In its earlier history
the city was independent and was of some size and importance, but it was overshadowed
by the nearby city of Mylasa. Euromos was a member of the Delian League in the
mid 5th century B.C. and seems to have remained independent until ca. 167 B.C.
when Mylasa revolted from Rhodian control and asserted power over Euromos territory.
Euromos then formed alliances with Rome, Rhodes, and Iasos and prospered during
the Hellenistic and Roman periods.
Exploration:
Small scale excavations began in 1969 and are continuing.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 22 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΕΦΕΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Ionia
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city and port
Summary: An important Ionian city and later seat of the Roman governor
of Asia Minor.
Physical Description:
Ephesos was originally established at the base of Mount
Pion, on a natural harbor at the delta of the Cayster river. The second site,
the unfortified late Archaic and Classical city was farther inland, closer to
the location of modern Selcuk. With the exception of some Archaic graves, there
has been little exploration of the Archaic or Classical settlements. The location
selected by Lysimachos at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. is represented
by the ruins visible today. Hellenistic Ephesos was planned on a grid system at
the W base of Mt. Pion and in the narrow valley S of Mt. Pion and NW of Mt. Koressos.
The city was enclosed by massive fortification walls reaching a height of 10 m
and extending over a distance of 9.6 km. The ancient harbor lay to the NW of the
city center and was approached by a broad, straight avenue. This 600 m long avenue
was provided, at the start of the 5th century A.D., with flanking porticoes and
mosaic sidewalks, marble pavement, and 100 street lamps. The harbor area was dominated
by a large gymnasium and bath complex, warehouses, and a long narrow building,
thought to have been a grain exchange. The city's center, at the E end of the
long avenue (the Arcadian Way), contained the 24,000 seat theater, the commercial
or lower agora, the Library of Celsus, and possibly the official residence of
the Roman governor. A non-aligned major street (the Street of Curetes or the Marble
Way) follows a winding route between Mt. Pion and Mt. Koressos to the upper agora
(the State Agora) and the Magnesian Gate. This section of the city contained the
East Gymnasium, Baths of Varius, the Bouleuterion, the Prytaneion, and most of
the temples, monuments, fountains and other public buildings of the city. In the
main part of the city, between the lower and the upper agora, the Street of Curetes
separates luxurious residential houses to the SW from the brothel and public baths
and latrine to the the NE. At the extreme N of the city was a fourth large gymnasium
and the Roman stadium. On the lower NE slope of Mt. Pion, beyond the city walls,
are a rustic sanctuary of the Mother Goddess and the Christian shrine of the Seven
Sleepers. From the Magnesian Gate a sacred way led to the Artemision, 1 km to
the NE. The structures at this sanctuary consisted of the monumental temple to
Artemis and a single large altar.
Description:
Traditionally, Androklos, a son of the legendary king Kodros
of Athens, led a colony of Ionian Greeks to found Ephesos at the mouth of the
Cayster river. The Ionians apparently settled peacefully among the local inhabitants
and integrated the worship of Artemis into the local cult of Cybele. The new fortified
Greek city was established on the shore at the base of Mount Pion, ca. 1 km W
of the Cybele cult center. The foundation date for the Cybele sanctuary is unknown,
but the transformation of Cybele into an Asian Artemis appears to have been completed
by as early as the 8th century B.C. The sanctuary, which became known as the Artemision,
underwent three building phases between the 8th and 6th centuries B.C. before
the Archaic temple of ca. 560-500 B.C. was constructed. The Archaic temple of
Artemis was the largest building in the Archaic Greek world and the first large
structure to be built entirely in marble. In 356 B.C. the temple was burnt by
a madman. The Ephesians rebuilt the temple in the original dimensions, but on
a higher base. The greatest sculptors of the age worked on the temple and it was
completed nearly a century later. The temple of Artemis was one of the seven wonders
of the ancient world. The sanctuary of Artemis was plundered in A.D. 263 by the
Goths and extensively quarried for building stone in the early Christian era.
The city of Ephesos, which benefited from its association with the sanctuary and
from its favorable position at the center of the W coast of Asia Minor, flourished
as a result of trade between the Aegean and the large asian cities of the interior.
In the 7th century B.C. Ephesos fell to the Cimmerians and in the 6th century
it came under the control of the Lydians. King Croesus demolished the city walls
and forced the inhabitants of Ephesos to build a new unfortified city farther
inland. After the fall of Croesus, Ephesos, with the rest of Ionia, became part
of the Persian Empire. Following the defeat of the Persians in Greece, Ephesos
became a member of the Delian League. The King's Peace of 386 B.C. caused the
city to revert to Persian control for a short period until the conquest of Asia
Minor by Alexander the Great. At ca. 290 B.C. Lysimachos compelled the Ephesians
to abandon their site and to construct a new fortified city at the shore, in the
area between Mounts Pion and Coressus. Lysimachos' city included over 9 km of
fortification walls, a sheltered harbor, and extensive wharves and warehouses.
Today the site is 5 km from the sea due to the silting action of the Cayster river.
During the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. control of Ephesos changed hands frequently.
In 133 B.C. it was part of the Attalid kingdom given over to Rome. Ephesos became
the capital of the Roman Province of Asia and one of the largest and most important
commercial centers of the eastern Empire. Ephesos was granted special honors by
Rome and many monumental buildings and architectural adornments were added to
the city. Through Roman engineering the harbor was kept open despite the silting
of the river. In the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. the prosperity of Ephesos declined
with the decline of Roman power. Plague and raids by the Goths were followed by
raids by the Arabs. The harbor was allowed to silt up and trade was greatly weakened.
In the 4th century A.D. Christianity was adopted as the state religion and two
important early Church councils were held at Ephesos in the 5th century A.D. By
the 6th century A.D. most of the inhabitants had moved to the more secure position
at Ayasluk, near the former site of the Artemision.
Exploration:
The location of the Artemision was discovered by J.T. Wood
in the mid 19th century and his work there was followed by Hogarth at the beginning
of the 20th century. Austrian excavations at the Artemision and at Ephesos began
first in 1896 and continue today.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 187 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΗΡΑΚΛΕΙΑ ΕΠΙ ΛΑΤΜΩ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: A Carian city refounded and enlarged in the Hellenistic
period.
Physical Description:
Located on the S slopes of Mount Latmus and ca. 25 km W
of Miletus, Heralkeia under Latmos was originally a port city at the extreme SE
corner of the Latmian gulf. As the Meander silted its delta a swamp developed
at Miletus and the freshwater lake of Barfa was formed at the SE. The 3rd century
B.C. city of Heralkeia (a refoundation of the earlier city of Latmos 1 km to the
E) had a circuit of well-built fortification walls that extended over 6 km in
length and ran from the fortified harbor northwards into the rugged upper slopes
of Mt. Latmus. The walls supported 65 towers and numerous gates and postern gates.
They are among the best preserved in the ancient world and details of parapets,
windows, foundation cuttings in bedrock, and even roofs can still be seen today.
The new city was planned in the Hippodamian grid system with major streets running
due N from the fortified harbor. At the center of the city is a rectangular agora
(60 x 130 m) with a two story row of shops still preserved along the southern
edge. East of the agora is the bouleuterion. The main temple of the city, the
temple of Athena, is one of the few structures not aligned to the city grid. It
sits on a prominent rocky spur to the west of the agora. The area of the city
N of the agora is less well known, but remains of three temples, a Roman bath,
a Roman theater, and a nymphaeum have been identified. South of the agora, on
a rise overlooking the lake is another structure not aligned to the grid. This
is a sanctuary with a SW facing building that was almost certainly dedicated to
Endymion. The unusual horseshoe-shaped rear wall of the cella incorporates sections
of natural bedrock and may well be a reflection of Endymion's cave. The original
settlement of Latmos, 1 km to the E served the later city as a necropolis, as
did all the area S and E of the 3rd century city walls of Herakleia.
Description:
Originally a Carian city on the edge of Ionian territory,
Latmus became a member of the Delian League in the 5th century B.C. In the 4th
century B.C. Mausolos of Halikarnassos captured the city by trickery and fortified
it with a circuit wall. At the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., with the removal
of Persian influence in Anatolia, a new city of Latmus was established ca. 1 km
W of the old city. At this time, or slightly earlier under the Hellenizing policy
of Mausolos, the city received the new name of Herakleia. The city was always
overshadowed by nearby Miletus which was more favorably located at the opening
of the Latmian gulf. Although new construction continued at Herakleia during the
Hellenistic and Roman periods, the silting of the Meander river closed the gulf
and by the 1st century B.C. the harbor of Herakleia no longer had access to the
Aegean Sea and the gulf before Herakleia was transformed into the large freshwater
lake Bafa. The city of Latmus-Herakleia was well known in antiquity for its association
with the myth of Endymion, a demi-god who chose to avoid death and old age by
sleeping forever in a cave on sacred Mt. Latmus. In the 7th century A.D. communities
of Christian monks who had fled Arabia were drawn to Herakleia and Lake Barfa
by the plentiful supply of fish and the many caves and natural wild character
of the terrain. The Endymion myth was given a Christian interpretation and many
pilgrims visited the region.
Exploration:
Chandler visited the site in 1765. Since then there has
been some study of the visible remains, but no systematic excavation at the site.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 56 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΙΑΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Caria
Periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city
Summary: One of the southernmost Greek cities of Anatolia, famed
in antiquity for its harbors and commercial fishing.
Physical Description:
Iasos occupies a S projecting headland of ca. 800 x 200
m on the gulf of Mendelia, NE of the Halikarnassos peninsula. From the highest
point, near the center of the headland, the land slopes away to the flat isthmus
joining the mainland. The necropolis and a Roman aqueduct are located on the low
land N and E of the isthmus. E of the headland is a small harbor and W is a smaller
and well-protected harbor. The W harbor had a mole and could be closed by a chain.
The high land W of the harbor was protected by a 3 km long fortification wall
with numerous towers and sally ports. This land wall, which was never completed,
enclosed a large plateau and may have been built shortly before 412 B.C. by the
Iasos ruler Amorges as a garrison or refuge center. A 2nd fortification wall encircled
the city of Iasos on the headland E of the harbor. The city's fortifications may
also date to the 5th century B.C., but were extensively rebuilt in later periods.
The main gate of the city, located at the isthmus and head of the harbor, opened
directly onto the agora, just inside the city walls. Excavations have found earlier
9th and 8th century graves beneath the agora, indicating that the earlier city
had been smaller. The civic center of Iasos, including the bouleuterion, gymnasium,
and theater lie in the N quarter of the city, between the agora at the N and the
acropolis near the center of the headland. Streets and private houses are found
S and E of the acropolis. A sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and a S city gate are
at the S tip of the headland and a sanctuary of Artemis is located in the N corner
of the city, near the agora. The remains on the acropolis have been greatly disturbed
by the construction of a fortress by the Knights of Rhodes in the Middle Ages.
Description:
According to tradition, Iasos was colonized, possibly in
the 9th or 8th century B.C., by Dorian Greeks from Argos with the support of the
nearby Ionian city of Miletus. Archaeological evidence, however, shows that the
site was already occupied in the Early Bronze Age. Minoan and Mycenaean remains
indicate continued occupation in later periods. Iasos probably supported the Ionian
cities against the Persians, and in the 5th century B.C. it was a member of the
Delian League. As an ally of Athens, Iasos was attacked by Sparta and Persia in
412 B.C. and sacked. There is some evidence that Iasos was again attacked by Sparta
in 404 B.C. and that all the inhabitants were slaughtered or sold into slavery.
After Spartian power in the Aegean was destroyed by Conon in 394 B.C., Iasos was
rebuilt, possibly with the aid of Knidos, and it joined a league of Aegean states
that included Ephesos, Rhodes, Samos, and Byzantium. Following the Peace of Antalkides
in 386 B.C., Iasos came under the control of Mausolos and the satrapy of Caria.
Iasos was later liberated by Alexander the Great, but in 125 B.C. it, along with
all of Caria, became part of the Roman province of Asia. Prosperity continued
throughout the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods and many of the remains
visible today date from the later periods.
Exploration:
Chandler visited the site in 1764. Italian excavations
under direction of Doro Levi since 1960.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 52 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΛΑΒΡΑΝΔΑ (Αρχαίο ιερό) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Caria
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: A major religious sanctuary and refuge in the Carian territory
of Mylasa.
Physical Description:
The site occupies a series of artificial terraces 600 meters
above sea level on the S slope of a mountain overlooking the plain of Milas. It
is linked by a 7.5 m wide, paved Sacred Way to the city of Mylasa (modern Milas),
13 km to the S. The artificial terraces at Labraunda, connected by ramps and stairways,
extend from the propylaeae and courtyard at the SE corner of the site to just
below the summit of the mountain. The building remains (dating chiefly to the
5th century B.C. and 1st century A.D.) include the temple of Zeus, 3 androns or
male club buildings, 2 stoas, 2 Roman baths, several priests' residences, a nymphaium
or well-house, and possibly a treasury. Remains to the SE may be the fountain
and pool for bejeweled, tame fish reportedly maintained at the sanctuary, possibly
in connection with an oracle. Above the main sanctuary are the remains of a stadium,
and a fortified refuge occupies the summit. Around the area of the sanctuary and
along the 13 km long Sacred Way are many tombs and sepulchral monuments.
Description:
Labraunda was a major sanctuary of the Carians, dedicated
to Zeus Stratius or Zeus Labraundos. The original site of the 7th century B.C.
may have been simply a sacred grove of plane trees. In the 5th century B.C. the
Hecatomnids, Mausolus followed by his brother Idrieus, adopted the cult and brought
about a great embellishment of the sanctuary, including the erection of the 1st
temple of Zeus, the Propylaeae and other major buildings. Although the sanctuary
was in the territory of Mausolus' capital city of Mylasa, it enjoyed a measure
of independence and its priests were responsible for the administration of the
temple lands. After the Hectomnid transformation of the sanctuary, which may have
included the addition of a royal summer residence on the site and the fortified
refuge above the sacred precinct, there was almost no change to the sanctuary
until the 1st century A.D. when a number of buildings, including the W stoa, the
well-house and 2 baths, were added. In the 4th century A.D. much of the W part
of the sanctuary was destroyed by fire, but the site continued to be occupied
and an early Byzantine church was built of reused material at the E end of the
site. The church was destroyed by fire in the 11th century A.D.
Exploration:
Swedish excavations since 1948. Director Axel Persson of
Uppsala University.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 48 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΜΙΛΗΤΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Ionia
Periods: Late Bronze Age, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city and port
Summary: A great maritime power, center of science and philosophy
in the Archaic period, and a major port in later periods.
Physical Description:
The original topographical position of Miletus was on a peninsula
at the S side of the opening to the Latmian Gulf. The natural harbors of the site
gained additional shelter from the offshore island of Lade to the W. In contrast
to Ephesus, Smyrna, and other Anatolian ports situated at the opening of broad
valleys leading to the interior, Miletus had mountainous terrain at its back.
The city was therefore more completely maritime in character and when silt deposited
by the Maeander River closed the gulf and extended the shore line (today it is
ca. 10 km beyond Miletus), the economy collapsed. The early Archaic city of Miletus
appears to have been centered around the temple of Athena, located between the
southwestern Athena harbor and the central Theater harbor. After the Persian destruction
in the beginning of the 5th century B.C. the city rebuilt and made extensive use
of the grid system developed by the Milesian architect Hippodamos. The city center
moved toward the NE, to the area between the base of the Lions harbor and E of
the Theater harbor. The remains of the Hellenistic and Roman city cover all of
the flat area of the peninsula N of the Kalabak Tepe and were enclosed by a city
wall completed in the 4th century B.C. The larger Athena and Theater harbors were
backed by the city wall, but the narrower, more defendable Lion harbor allowed
an opening in the city wall. This was sealed by a chain in time of danger. In
addition to the three W harbors at Miletus ships could also be landed on the east
side of the city. The Lion harbor was the principal port of the city and was surrounded
on three sides by quays, warehouses, and shops. At the S base of the Lion harbor
is the North agora and the sanctuary of Apollo. Below the North agora is the South
agora (the largest agora in the Greek world: 164 x 196 m) and the civic center
of the city. Located here are the bouleuterion, major temples and hero shrines,
the nymphaeum, and the starting point of the Didyma sacred way. West of the South
agora are the Baths of Faustina (the only structure not aligned to the city grid
system) and the West gymnasium. Farther W, between the Athena and Theater harbors
is the West agora, the latest of the city's three market places. The West agora
is immediately N of the temple of Athena. North of the Theater harbor is the theater
of Miletus, originally built in the 4th century B.C. and enlarged in the Hellenistic
and Roman periods to a final capacity of 15,000 seats.
Description:
According to tradition, Miletus was first founded as a trading
post by colonists from the Cretan city of Milatos sometime before 1400 B.C. The
site appears to have passed into Mycenaean control and finally by the end of the
Late Bronze Age into Carian hands. Miletus was the only Ionian city mentioned
by Homer, who records that the Carian-led Miletians fought against the Greeks
at Troy. Archaeological excavations at Kalabak Tepe, to the SW of the site, verify
the early Minoan and Mycenaean presence. The refounding of Miletus, early in the
Iron Age, was traditionally credited to Neleus, a son of the legendary King Kodros
of Athens. Neleus and the Ionian Greeks occupied the city, slaughtered the Carian
males, and took the women as mates. Because of its important maritime location
and its proximity to the famous sanctuary of Apollo at Didyma, Miletus prospered
as a trading center. During the 8th and 7th centuries B.C., Miletus established
over 90 colonies throughout the E Aegean; from Naucratis in Egypt to Sinope on
the Black Sea. The trade and international contacts of Miletus brought a prosperity
and cosmopolitan character to the city. In the Archaic period Miletus was a major
center for the early development of Greek science and philosophy. By the 6th century
B.C. the city had grown in size and extended from the original site on Kalabak
Tepe to the area of the harbor of the Lions. The city was renouned throughout
the Greek world and was the most important of the 12 cities in the Panionian League.
Although Miletus seems to have had special privileges under Persian rule, it took
an active part in the Ionian revolt of 500-494 B.C. Following the Greek defeat
at the naval battle of Lade in 494 B.C., the Persians destroyed Miletus and killed
or enslaved all the inhabitants. At the same time the sanctuary of Apollo at Didyma
was also plundered and destroyed. In 480 B.C. Greek victory over the Persians
restored freedom to the Ionian cities. Miletus joined the Delian League and regained
much of its former status. The previous prosperity of Miletus, however, had been
based on its sea trade which was hindered by the rise of Athenian naval supremacy.
In 386 B.C. the Ionian cities again came under Persian control as a result of
the Kings' Peace settlement. In 334 B.C., in the course of freeing the Ionian
cities from Persian rule, Alexander the Great defeated the Persian garrison at
Miletus. During the Hellenistic period Miletus passed under the control of a number
of dynasties, finally being presented to the Romans by the last Attalid king.
Under Roman rule, Miletus had the status of a free city and continued to flourish
until the 4th century A.D. when the silting of the Maeander delta closed the harbors
and created a swamp at the former shore line. Miletus had always been predominately
a maritime city and the loss of its harbors terminated the life of the city. In
the Byzantine period a fortress was constructed on the upper ruins of the theater.
Exploration:
German excavations began at Miletus at the end of the 19th
century and continue to the present.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 39 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΠΑΝΙΩΝΙΟΝ (Αρχαίο ιερό) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Ionia
Periods: Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: Sanctuary of Poseidon and meeting place of the Ionian League.
Physical Description:
The sanctuary is on a low hill on the N slope of Mt. Mycale,
overlooking the sea. It was in the territory of Priene, which is ca. 5 km due
S on the opposite slope of the mountain, and linked to that city by a paved road.
The sanctuary was enclosed by a temenos wall and at the center of the site was
a rectangualr altar of ca. 17.50 m by 4.25 m. There were no temples or other buildings
at the sanctuary, but a small theater or odeum consisting of 11 semicircular rows
of seats cut into bedrock is located ca. 50 m SW of the altar at the foot of the
small hill. This was almost certainly the meeting place for the delegates of the
Ionian League. There is also a large cave above the meeting place, but it has
not been shown to have had a cult function.
Description:
At an early date, possibly before 800 B.C., the 12 main
Ionian cities formed the Panionic League which had religious and cultural importance,
but no political or military function. The League established its center at a
site which may have already been sacret to the small city of Melia and dedicated
the new sanctuary to Poseidon Heliconius. The sanctuary served as the meeting
place of the League and as the location for the Paionia, a regularly held festival
in honor of Poseidon. The city of Priene managed the sanctuary and had some privileges
in appointment of priests. During the Persian period activities of the League
and the sanctuary were limited and for a time the Panionia was held in the neighborhood
of Ephesus for saftey. After the conquests of Alexander, the Paionia was revived
at its origianl sanctuary and continued to be held throughout the Roman period.
The cultural and religious significance of the Panionium sanctuary and the festival,
however, never regained the importance they held before the 5th century B.C.
Exploration:
The location of the Panionium was first suggested by the
discovery of an inscription in the area in 1673. T. Wiegand discovered the actual
location of the sanctuary at the end of the 19th century and the site was partially
excavated by a German team in 1958.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΠΕΡΓΑΜΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Mysia
Periods: Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: Capital city of the hellenistic kingdom of Pergamon.
Physical Description:
The oldest section of Pergamon, the acropolis or upper
city, sits on an impressive steep ridge between two tributaries of the Caicus
river. The ridge is naturally fortified on all but the S side which slopes down
to the Caicus valley floor. The Caicus valley provides access from Pergamon to
the Aegean coast and the port town of Elaea in the W and the Persian Royal Road
to the E. The upper city, which was fortified in the 4th or 3rd century B.C. contains
the 3rd century Sanctuary of Athena, the oldest cult center of the city as well
as palace quarters, barracks, and arsenals. In the 2nd century B.C. the 10,000
seat theater, the library adjacent to the Sanctuary of Athena, and the Great Altar
of Zeus and Athena were added. In the 2nd century A.D. the monumental Trajaneum
was erected on what must have been an earlier unknown cult center. From the upper
agora a paved main street leads S and downslope to the middle city. The city of
Pergamon began to extend down the S slope in the 3rd century B.C. and during the
2nd century a massive building program completely transformed the entire lower
slope. The major construction in the area was the gigantic gymnasium complex which
extended down three large terraces linked by vaulted stairways and passages. The
complex encorporated three open training courts, a covered track or xystus, a
small theater or odeum, several shrines, and two large baths. Other major sections
of the middle city included the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore and, below the gymnasium
along the main street leading to the Eumenes' Gate, the lower agora. North and
E of the gymnasium massive terraces support the streets and houses of the residential
quarter. In the first half of the 2nd century B.C. Eumenes II strengthened the
entire fortification system of Pergamon and enclosed all of the middle city, which
extended almost to the base of the south slope, within the new walls. During the
Roman Imperial period the city continued to expand southward and spread over the
plain and the area occuppied by modern Bergama. The large Sanctuary of the Egyptian
Gods (the "Kizil Avlu"), numerous bridges, and remains of the Roman stadium, theater,
and amphitheater remain visible today.
Description:
The earliest material from Pergamon indicates that the
site was settled as early as the 8th century B.C. Because of its distance from
the sea, however, Pergamon was probably not a Greek settlement and little is known
about the earlier centuries. The city is first mentioned in history in 399 B.C.
and at that time it was in the hands of a local Greek tyrant. Pergamon emerged
as a power during the struggle for territorial control following the death of
Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. By the middle of the 3rd century Pergamon had
been established as an independent state under the leadership of the Attalid dynasty.
The power of the Attalids and the city grew as a result of successful battles
against the Gauls of central Anatolia and careful political alliances with Rome.
The peak period of Pergamene power and achievement was reached during the reign
of Eumenes II (197-159 B.C.). The kingdom had grown to include most of western
Anatolia and was rich in agriculture and industry. Noted industrial exports included
textiles, fine pottery, and "Pergamene paper" or parchment. The last industry
developed when Ptolemy, reportedly jealous of the growing fame of the library
in Pergamon, prohibited the export of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes II enlarged
the city of Pergamon to include all of the southern slope and enclosed the city
with a new and stronger fortification wall. In addition to the major new constructions
in the lower city Eumenes also commissioned the Great Altar of Zeus and Athena,
the theater, and the new library in the upper city. In the 2nd century B.C. Pergamon
rivalled Athens and Alexandria as centers of Hellenic culture. The city possessed
one of the greatest libraries of antiquity, monumental gymnasia, and numerous
religious sanctuaries, including the Asklepion outside the city walls. Pergamon
was a haven for noted philosophers and artists and was the center of a major movement
in Hellenistic sculpture. The Attalids supported the arts and learning in Pergamon
and elsewhere and made major donations, such as the Stoa of Attalos II in Athens.
The last Attalid ruler, Attalos III, bequeathed the kingdom of Pergamon to Rome
in 133 B.C. During Roman rule the prosperity of Pergamon continued and the city
had a period of commercial expansion. The city itself expanded to the plain S
and W of the acropolis across the flat land now occuppied by modern Bergama. After
a slight decline in the 1st century A.D. Pergamon went through a second period
of greatness in the 2nd century A.D. New monumental structures were completed,
including the large (ca. 300 x 100 m) sanctuary to the Egyptian gods in the center
of the Roman city. The Sanctuary of Asklepios grew in fame and was considered
one of the most famous therapeutic and healing center of the Roman world. Galen,
after Hippocrates the most famous physician of antiquity, was born at Pergamon
and received his early training at the Asklepion. By the end of the 2nd century
A.D. Pergamon had become an important Christian center and the monumental Temple
of Serapis in the sanctuary to the Egyptian gods was converted to a church. Economical
decline, however, followed the weakening of the Pax Romana and Pergamon lost much
of its importance. In A.D. 716 the city was sacked by the Arabs and as a minor
provincial center changed hands several times in the Medieval period.
Exploration:
Excavations by the German Archaeological Institute have been
conducted almost continuously since 1878. During the earliest work at the end
of the last century major art works, including the entire Altar of Zeus and Athena,
were carried off to Berlin.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 272 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Region: Mysia
Periods: Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: A major healing sanctuary, second only to Epidauros itself.
Physical Description:
When the Asklepieion was first established at the beginning
of the 4th century B.C. the city of Pergamon was located ca. 3 km to the NE. By
the time the sanctuary had reached its peak in fame and monumental appearance
in the 2nd century A.D. the city of Pergamon had expanded until its SW edge was
ca. 500 m from the sanctuary. A colonnaded and paved sacred way, the Via Tecta,
linked the city to the sanctuary. The sacred way reached the center of the E side
of the temenos at a forecourt and monumental propylon. Along the eastern side
of the sanctuary the library is N of the propylon and the circular temple of Zeus
Asklepios (diameter 23.85 m) and the two-story rotunda treatment center (diameter
26.5 m) are aligned S of it. The two-story circular treatment center at the SE
corner of the rectangular temenos is counterbalanced by the theater at the NW
corner. The other three sides of the large central court (110 x 130 m) of the
sanctuary consists of stoas or colonnaded walkways. A complex of luxurious public
latrines at the SW corner of the temenos counterbalanced the library at the NE
corner. At the center of the W stoa there was an access to the adjoining gymnasium.
A vaulted subterranian passage led from the large treatment center at the SE to
the center of the temenos, where the sacred spring formed the nucleus of the sanctuary.
The central plaza-like area of the sanctuary also contained other fountains, mud
baths, and small temples and altars. It was at the nucleus of the temenos, in
the area of the sacred spring, that the earlier unknown cult center was located
and the original Hellenistic Asklepieion developed.
Description:
At ca. 400 B.C. the Pergamene Asklepieion was established
at the existing religious sanctuary of an unknown deity located at a spring ca.
3 km SW of the city. The early Asklepieion consisted of a number of temples, including
the first temple of Asklepios Soter, an early treatment building, fountain house,
and several altars. In the late Hellenistic period the sanctuary expanded to the
S and took the form of a large rectangular court surrounded by stoas, temples,
and an enlarged treatment building. A gymnasium and stoa was also constructed
to the W of the main complex. The fame and prestige of the Asklepieion grew rapidly
during the Roman period and reached a peak in the 2nd century A.D. when the sanctuary
gained the monumental appearance that is reflected in the remains visible today.
In addition to the monumental building program of the 2nd century A.D. and the
fame of the sanctuary as a spa and healing center, which was second only to the
original Asklepieion at Epidauros, the Pergamene Asklepieion was also renouned
as the school of Galen, the most famous physician of the Roman period. Even after
the introduction of Christianity at Pergamon, the Asklepieion continued to exist
as a medical and healing center.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΠΡΙΗΝΗ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Ionia
Periods: Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine
Type: Fortified city
Summary: Grid-planned city at the foot of Mt. Mykale.
Physical Description:
The city of Priene lies on the southern slopes of Mt. Mykale
overlooking the Maeander river. The city largely excavated by the Germans in the
late 19th century is planned on a strict grid, defying the steeply sloping topography
of the site and imposing a rational human order on the landscape. Its well-preserved
remains, with its temple of Athena, well-planned agora, theater, stadium, gymnasium,
fortification walls and many excavated houses, form one of the best examples of
a small Greek polis. The city was laid out on a rectangular grid, with blocks
measuring about 120 x 160 feet (35.40 x 47.20 m), a proportion of 3:4. These blocks
were originally divided into 8 rather long and narrow houses, although later rebuilding
has obscured much of the original scheme (see Hoepfner & Schwandner 1986, 153,
169-75, fig. 147, etc.; this original grid is included in the Perseus site plans
in lighter lines, together with the excavated sections of walls which conform
to this grid, in heavier lines). The plan was applied rather ruthlessly to the
landscape, requiring extensive terracing, with some streets transformed to steep
flights of stairs. Some of the flatter areas of the city were reserved for the
major public buildings: the Temple of Athena Polias, among the first structures
to be built in the newly-moved city, and the agora, an open area surrounded by
stoas. The theater was set into the side of the hill above the agora. The streets
vary in width depending on their position in the city and the traffic they were
intended to bear: thus the main east-west street (the "Westtorstrasse") is 5.55-5.60
m wide, about 19 Ionic feet; the street east of the Prytaneion 4.30 m (almost
15 feet), other streets average about 3.45 m wide, about 12 feet. Hoepfner and
Schwandner restore an original scheme in which the north-south streets widen progressively
towards the center of the city, from 12 feet at the gates to 16 and then 20 feet
at the agora. The impressive fortification walls also included the acropolis above
the city. This was a relatively empty area, though, without much occupation other
than defenses and barracks. The walls enclosed some 37 ha., of which the built-up
lower city covered some 15 ha.
Description:
The remains of the city on Mt. Mykale are positively identified
as Priene by inscriptions and coins. Practically no remains dating to earlier
than the mid-fourth century were found at the site, however, despite its extensive
excavation. The Germans concluded from this and from the layout of the city that
Priene had moved to this site in the mid-fourth century from an earlier, yet undiscovered
spot. They attributed the move to the silting of the Maeander river, which also
engulfed Myus, Miletus and other nearby cities, as well, later, as Priene itself
(Strabo 12.8.17); other scholars have suggested that Mausolus, Athens or other
agencies were also involved. Such a move is not attested in the literary sources,
and in fact, as Demand has pointed out, some sources seem to imply that Priene
was always located in the same place (e.g. Strabo 14.1.12; Paus. 7.2.10; see Demand
1990, 139-146; Phoenix 40 (1986) 36-44). However, the archaeological evidence,
including the lack of earlier coins and pottery, earlier architecture or architectural
fragments, and the layout of the city, of which the mid-fourth century temple
of Athena forms an integral part, seem to show conclusively that there was no
earlier occupation at this site. The end of the city is also problematic. Most
of the houses seem to have been destroyed by fire in the second half of the second
century BC, and never reoccupied. The bulk of the finds from the excavation come
from this destruction level. Parts of the city, including many of the major public
buildings, were occupied into the Roman period, though, and a Byzantine chapel
attests occupation in that era.
Exploration:
The Society of Dilettanti sent three missions to Priene,
in 1764-6, 1811-12 and 1868-9; excavations conducted during the last mission,
by Richard Popplewell Pullan, uncovered the Temple and Temenos of Athena Polias.
In 1895-1989 a German expedition led by Th. Wiegand and H. Schrader excavated
much of the rest of the city, including the agora, further sanctuaries, and houses.
Recent research by the German Archaeological Institute has refined their findings.
Nick Cahill, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 165 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΣΜΥΡΝΗ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Ionia
Periods: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, Dark
Age, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Modern
Type: Fortified city and port
Summary: A major ancient port city and archaeologically important
for its Early Iron Age architectural remains.
Physical Description:
The original Early Bronze Age to Archaic period settlement
was at Bayrakli, on the NE side of the Gulf of Izmir. Excavations at this site
have found, in addition to the remains of an early temple of Athena, the rare
remains of houses and city fortification walls dating to the 9th through 7th centuries
B.C. There is no evidence for a city or single civic center during the Classical
period and in the Hellenistic period a new city was founded in the area of modern
Izmir, on and below Mount Pagus. Mount Pagus served as the acropolis and from
it defensive walls extended down to the shore. The 2nd century A.D. agora, which
is midway between the acropolis and the harbor, has been partially excavted. With
the exception of the agora, Roman theater, and sections of the Roman aqueduct,
little remains of the ancient city today.
Description:
The earliest settlement at Bayrakli, ca. 4 km N of later Smyrna,
dates to the Early Bronze Age or ca. 2500 B.C. The site was occupied by Aeolian
Greeks at ca. 1050 B.C. and, because of its location at the northern boundary
of Ionian territory, it soon became essentially an Ionian city. But it was not
admitted to the Panionian League until a much later date. The early Greek city
had defensive walls by the 9th century B.C. and its Archaic temple of Athena,
built at ca. 625 B.C. was the earliest known Greek religious shrine in Anatolia.
Smyrna was prosperious in the 7th century B.C. and may have been the birthplace
of Homer. The city was sacked by the Lydian king Alyattes at ca. 600 B.C. and
again by the Persians at ca. 545 B.C. During the Classical period Smyra was an
unimportant scatter of villages around the former city site and did not belong
to the Delian League. A new city of Smyrna was founded by Alexander the Great
between Mount Pagus and the shore in response to advice from an oracle. Smyrna
became a prosperous trade center and was known for its architectural beauty in
the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Under Roman control the city was favored by
different emperors, including Marcus Aurelius, who donated reconstruction funds
to the city after the earthquake of A.D. 178. Smyrna continued to be an important
city in the early Christian period and continued to thrive until thereatened by
the Arab raids of the 7th century A.D.
Exploration:
Smyrna was a center for exploration teams of the Society
of Dilettani in the mid 18th century A.D. Bayrakli was excavated by a joint British
and Turkish team in 1948-1951. The Smyrna agora was excavated by a joint German
and Turkish team in 1932-1941.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 3 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ (Χώρα) ΕΥΡΩΠΗ
Στο Perseus Site Catalog περιλαμβάνονται τοποθεσίες
με αρχαιολογικό ενδιαφέρον που βρίσκονται στην Ελλάδα,
την Ιταλία και την Τουρκία.
Οι τοποθεσίες αυτές χαρακτηρίζονται ως πόλεις, ιερά κλπ. και υπάρχουν
πληροφορίες σχετικά με τη γεωγραφική τους θέση και τις χρονικές περιόδους κατά
τις οποίες παρουσιάζουν ενδιαφέρον.
Παράλληλα, οι πληροφορίες αυτές συνοδεύονται από περιγραφή των χώρων,
links, εικόνες, σχετική βιβλιογραφία και αναφορά σε ανασκαφικές έρευνες.
Σημείωση Σύνταξης:
Στις ιστοσελίδες μας γίνεται παράθεση των κειμένων του Perseus Site Catalog
με παραπομπή στo Perseus Project στα
κάτωθι τοπωνύμια:
ΕΛΛΑΔΑ:
Αβδηρα, Αθήναι,
Αίγινα, Αιγόσθενα,
Ακανθος, Ακρωτήρι,
Αλιείς, Αμφιάρειον,
Αμφίπολις, Αργισσα,
Αργος, Αφαία,
Αχαρναί, Βεργίνα,
Βραυρών, Δελφοί,
Δήλος, Διμήνι,
Δρήρος, Δωδώνη,
Ελευσίς, Επίδαυρος,
Ερέτρια, Ηραίον
(Σάμου), Ηραίον (Κορινθίας),
Ηραίον (Αργους), Θάσος,
Θέρμων, Θορικός,
Ίσθμια, Καλυδών,
Κάμειρος, Κάρυστος,
Καρφί, Κασσώπη,
Κέρκυρα, Κόρινθος,
Λέρνα, Μάλια,
Μαντίνεια, Μεγαλόπολις,
Μεσσήνη, Μυκήναι,
Ολυμπία, Όλυνθος,
Πειραιεύς, Πέλλα,
Πρινιάς, Πύλος,
Ραμνούς, Ρόδος,
Σαμοθράκη, Σέσκλο,
Σούνιον, Σπάρτη,
Τεγέα
ΙΤΑΛΙΑ:
Ακράγας, Γέλα,
Ηραίον, Μεταπόντιον,
Ποσειδωνία, Σελινούς,
Συρακούσαι
ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ:
Αλικαρνασσός, Ασσος,
Δίδυμα, Εύρωμος,
Έφεσος, Ηράκλεια
επί Λάτμω, Ίασος, Λάβρανδα,
Μίλητος, Πανιώνιον,
Πέργαμος, Πριήνη,
Σμύρνη, Τροία
ΤΡΟΙΑ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Region: Troad
Periods: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, Archaic,
Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Fortified city
Summary: Major Late Bronze Age settlement at the Hellespont.
Physical Description:
From the beginning, the settlements at the site of Troy
were fortified. During the Bronze Age the coast line was closer to the low mound
of the site and Troy maintained a stratigic maritime advantage due to its position
at the opening of the Hellespont. Troy also had access to a large fertile coastal
plain for agriculture. By the Hellenistic period the coast line had shifted away
due to silting and the nearby city of Alexandria Troas captured the maritime commercial
advantage. In the Early Iron Age the Greek colonists repaired and made use of
the earlier Bronze Age fortification walls, and the city remained relatively small
throughout the Archaic and Classical periods. In the Hellenistic period much of
the original settlement area was disturbed by by the construction of a new sanctuary
of Athena, a theater, palaestra, and extended city walls. The city was destroyed
in 82 B.C. during the Mithridatic Wars, but rebuilt during the reign of Augustus
(27 B.C. - A.D. 14). The Roman rennovations included the reconstruction of the
sanctuary of Athena and the addition of odeum, bouleuterion, and other buildings.
Description:
The earliest settlement at Troy was in the Early Bronze Age
at ca. 3000 B.C. This small fortified settlement was destroyed by fire and was
followed by Troy II (2500-2200 B.C.), which Schliemann incorrectly believed to
have been the city of Priam. Settlement continued throughout the Bronze Age at
the site. The latest prehistoric levels are Troy VI (1800-1275 B.C.) and Troy
VII (1275-1100 B.C.) and scholars debate which of these levels represent the city
of Priam and scene of the Trojan War. Following the end of the Late Bronze Age
there was a 400 year hiatus at the site until it was resettled at ca. 700 B.C.
by Greek colonists, possibly from Lesbos or Tenedos. The Early Iron Age city (Troy
VIII) was founded with the name Ilion and believed at the time to be the site
of Homeric Troy. The city had little political power, but was symbolically important.
It was under Persian control from the 6th century B.C. until the liberation of
Asia Minor by Alexander the Great in 334 B.C. In 480 B.C. Xerxes halted at Troy
to sacrifice a thousand oxen before crossing the Hellespont into Greece. In 334
B.C. Alexander went to Troy immediately after crossing into Asia Minor to make
an offering. Following the death of Alexander in 323 B.C., his successor in Thrace
had a new temple of Athena built at the city. Julius Caesar, who believed himself
to be a direct descendant of Priam, visited the city and gave it immunity from
taxation. In the reign of Augustus the city and the sanctuary of Athena under
went a large rebuilding program. Constantine considered Troy as a possible site
for his new capital before chosing Byzantium, and as late as A.D. 355 the site
was visited by the emperor Julian. By the 4th century A.D., however, the site
was little more than a small farming community and by the 12th century A.D. it
was completely abandoned.
Exploration:
Troy was discovered and first excavated by H. Schliemann
at the end of the last century. Work was continued by Dorpfeld and then by C.
Blegen.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Nov 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 63 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
ΓΟΡΔΙΟΝ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Fifty years ago, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (UPM) began excavations at the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordion in central Turkey. Within six years, the expedition had made one of the most spectacular archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. In the largest burial mound at the site, they located what has since been identified as the tomb of Gordion's most famous son, King Midas.
ΕΦΕΣΟΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Τηλέφωνο: +43 1 4277271-01
Φαξ: +43 1 4277 9271
ΛΙΜΥΡΑ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
Τηλέφωνο: +43 1 4277271-01
Φαξ: +43 1 4277 9271
ΑΦΡΟΔΙΣΙΑΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΑΪΔΙΝ
The Greek Theater in Aphrodisias, large enough to seat an audience of 10,000.
Labradeus. A surname of Zeus at Labranda near Mylassa in Caria. The name was derived, according to Plutarch, from labrus, the Lydian term for a hatchet, which the statue of Zeus held in its hand, and which had been offered up by Arselis of Mylassa from the spoils of Candaules, king of Lydia
ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΙΣ (Αρχαία πόλη) ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑ
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