Listed 73 sub titles with search on: Culture & Arts subjects for wider area of: "GREECE Country EUROPE" .
IKARIA (Island) NORTH AEGEAN
The Ikarian dance, from a musical standpoint, is unique in the Greek
realm. Its variations look like the “Kalamatiano” (a kind of “syrtos”
dance from Southern Greece)
and originates from antiquity, in the ancient “χόρειο άλογο” dance.
The traditional songs, such as “Ambelokoutsoura”, in iambic 15-syllable
metre, are what has been saved as a specimen of dactylic metre and of the music
we come across in Homer.
The musical instruments used by Ikarian musicians are the lyra, the
violin and the tsabounofylaka (island bagpipes).
Apart from the traditional songs, there are the epics (rives), which
refer to the history of Ikaria. The Riva of the Castle of Koskina (Kossikia,
Mesaria) in three variations is about the taking over of the Castle by the Genoese,
and the Riva of Lagada about
the rebuttal of the pirates by the inhabitants.
Rives and traditional songs are sung at feasts and traditional weddings.
This text (extract) is cited January 2004 from the Evdilos
Municipal Cultural Organization tourist pamphlet.
AGION OROS (Mountain) HALKIDIKI
About 12,000 manuscripts, comprising one of the richest collections
in the world, are preserved in the 20 monasteries of Mount Athos. Most of these
manuscripts concern texts of an ecclesiastical nature, the remainder being texts
of ancient Greek literature.
More than 800 manuscripts are illustrated with Old and New Testament
subjects and date to the period between the 9th and 18th centuries. The oldest,
such as no. 61 at Pantokrator
Monastery, date back to the years shortly after the end, in 843, of the iconoclastic
movement and provide invaluable evidence of the nature of Byzantine art.
Most of the illuminated manuscripts are preserved in the larger and
older monasteries. Their diverse provenance and the paintings they contain, which
mirror the artistic movements of the 11th, 12th and 14th centuries, are proof
both of the widespread influence and of the ever-evolving nature of Byzantine
art.
Illuminated manuscripts (867-1204)
The rich libraries of the Protaton and the twenty monasteries on Mount
Athos house over 800 illuminated manuscripts. Of diverse provenance and spanning
a period from the 9th to the 18th century, they provide a wonderful picture of
this painting genre.
The illuminated manuscripts of the 9th to 12th centuries are few in
number and most of them represent the art of Constantinople,
since they originated from copyist scriptoria of that city. The psalters with
full-page miniatures are an example (Psalter no. 61 in the Pantocrator Monastery).
Illuminated manuscipts (1204-1430)
The miniatures in the manuscripts embody the aesthetic concepts prevailing
in monumental painting. The only known codex of Thessalonikan provenance is that
in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (Ms. Gr. th. f.1), commissioned by Demetrios Palaeologos,
son of the emperor Andronikos II. This is the first "pocket book" and
contains only pictures, no text. Scriptoria are known to have operated on Mount
Athos in the 13th and mainly after the mid-14th century; one of them was based
on the monastery of Chelandari.
By kind permission of:Ekdotike Athenon
This text is cited Nov 2003 from the Macedonian Heritage URL below, which contains images.
ARCADIA (Prefecture) PELOPONNISOS
AVDIRA (Ancient city) XANTHI
Before B.C. 400 Democritus of Abdera discussed the vocabulary of Homer, and is even said to have compiled an Homeric dictionary.
GORTYS (Ancient city) HERAKLIO
There are many important inscriptions in Doric Greek. ...the Cretan from treaty-tablets and others found in Crete (see Gortyn) and among
the ruins of the Temple of Dionysus on the island of Teos.
ARETHOUSSA (Village) EVDILOS
The Hellenic Culture Centre (Kentro Ellinikou Politismou) organises Modern Greek courses every year. The courses take place in the picturesque island of Ikaria (summer courses: May - October), as well as in Athens (all year).
CHIOS (Island) NORTH AEGEAN
University of Tennessee at Martin
KORINTHOS (Ancient city) PELOPONNISOS
A three-handled water jar used for drawing water, as cinerary urns and as ballot boxes. Shape: It has a vertical handle at the back for dipping, carrying , or pouring, and two horizontal handles set on the sides for lifting. In size, hydriai correspond to amphorae. There are two distinct types of hydria: one where the neck is set off from the body, called a neck hydria; and the other where the neck and body form a continuous curve.
History: The tall slim version, called a loutrophoros-hydria, a ritual vessel, had a long and early history in Athens, but the more typical variety- the one with the globular body and cylindrical neck- appears to have been borrowed from Corinth in the early sixth century B.C. In Attica a modified version develops in the middle sixth century B.C.; the shoulder becomes progressively flatter, with the neck set off from the body, and this becomes the standard black-figure type. This style lasts into the second quarter of the fifth century B.C.
A related shape, the kalpis, is also commonly used to carry water. Vessels of this shape often appear in vase-painting, usually depicting women drawing water at a fountain-house (but this does not preclude their being used for other purposes). In a representation on the Francois vase (Troilos being pursued by Achilles) a jar of this shape, with its neck set off from the body, is inscribed "hydria". They were also used as cinerary urns, as attested by the cemetery at Hadra, near Alexandria, where many were found containing the ashes of the dead. They were also used as ballot boxes, into which names were placed.
Term: The name hydria is satisfactorily attested for this type of vessel, as is the name kalpis.
This text is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
Cited Sept 2002 from Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image & interesting hyperlinks.
Vitruvius Pollio, The Ten Books on Architecture (ed. Morris Hicky Morgan)
Much confusion has arisen from the fact that both Greeks and Romans use only one term for copper and for that mixture of copper and tin which we call bronze . . . The Delian was reckoned the more precious of these, but still more valuable was the hepatizon or liver-coloured bronze, and most valuable of all the Corinthian. With regard to the last-mentioned, a silly story was told that it was produced by a fortuitous [p. 34] mixture of melted metals on the occasion of the burning of Corinth by Mummius. Pliny sensibly remarks that this story is absurd, because most of the authors of the highly valued works in Corinthian bronze lived at a much earlier period. . .Of Corinthian bronze he distinguishes three kinds: in the first silver predominates, in the second gold, in the third the metals are balanced and harmonized. . .
In the fourth century B.C., owing to the change wrought in the Greek mind by the Peloponnesian War, in place of the pure and even tone of the preceding period, a desire for effect became more and more general, both in architecture and sculpture. The sober Doric style fell into abeyance and gave way to the Ionic, by the side of which a new order, the Corinthian, said to have been invented by the sculptor Callimachus, with its more gorgeous decorations, became increasingly fashionable. In the first half of the fourth century arose what the ancients considered the largest and grandest temple in the Peloponnesus, that of Athene at Tegea, a work of the sculptor and architect Scopas. During the middle of the century another of the "seven wonders", the splendid tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus, was constructed. Many magnificent temples arose in that time. In Asia Minor, the temple at Ephesus, burned down by Herostratus, was rebuilt by Alexander's bold architect Dinocrates. In the islands the ruins of the Temple of Athene at Priene, of Apollo at Miletus, of Dionysus at Teos, and others, even to this day offer a brilliant testimony to their former magnificence. Among Athenian buildings of that age the Monument of Lysicrates is conspicuous for its graceful elegance and elaborate development of the Corinthian style. In the succeeding age, Greek architecture shows its finest achievements in the building of theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns; in the gorgeous palaces of newly built royal capitals; and in general in the luxurious completeness of private buildings. As an important specimen of the last age of Attic architecture may also be mentioned the Tower of the Winds at Athens.
This extract is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
Cited Sept 2002 from Perseus Project URL below, which contains 6 images & interesting hyperlinks.
This extract is from: Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. Cited July 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Many magnificent temples arose in that time. In Asia Minor, the temple at Ephesus, burned down by Herostratus, was rebuilt by Alexander's bold architect Dinocrates. In the islands the ruins of the Temple of Athene at Priene, of Apollo at Miletus, of Dionysus at Teos, and others, even to this day offer a brilliant testimony to their former magnificence. Among Athenian buildings of that age the Monument of Lysicrates is conspicuous for its graceful elegance and elaborate development of the Corinthian style. In the succeeding age, Greek architecture shows its finest achievements in the building of theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns; in the gorgeous palaces of newly built royal capitals; and in general in the luxurious completeness of private buildings. As an important specimen of the last age of Attic architecture may also be mentioned the Tower of the Winds at Athens.
is known from inscriptions of Corcyra and Syracuse, both colonies of Corinth.
Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: the Origins of the Greek Stadion.
It has been already noticed that Corinth was one of the earliest seats
of Grecian art. (Strab. viii. p. 382.) It was in this city that painting was said
to have been invented by Ardicas, Cleophantus, and Cleanthes (Plin. xxxv. 5),
and at the time of its capture by the Romans it possessed some of the finest paintings
in Greece. Among these was the celebrated picture of Dionysus by Aristeides of
Thebes, for which Attalus offered the sum of 600,000 sesterces, and which was
afterwards exhibited at Rome in the temple of Ceres. (Strab. viii. p. 381; Plin.
xxxv. 8.) The numerous splendid temples which the wealth of the Corinthians enabled
them to erect gave an impulse to architecture; and the most elaborate order of
architecture was, as is well known, named after them. Statuary also flourished
at Corinth, which was particularly celebrated for its works in bronze; and the
name of Aes Corinthiacum was given to the finest kind of bronze. One of the earlier
works of Corinthian art, which retained its celebrity in later times, wag the
celebrated chest of Cypselus, made of cedar wood and adorned with figures. It
was dedicated at Olympia, where it was seen by Pausanias, who has given a minute
description of it (v. 17, seq.). The Corinthian vases of terra cotta were among
the finest in Greece; and such was their beauty, that all the cemeteries of the
city were ransacked by the colonists of Julius Caesar, who sent them to Rome,
where they fetched enormous prices. (Strab. viii. p. 381.)
In the time of Periander poetry likewise flourished at Corinth. It
was here that Arion introduced those improvements into the dithyramb, which caused
him to be regarded as its inventor, and which led Pindar to speak of Corinth as
the city in which Mois hadupnoos anthei. (Herod. i. 23; Pind. Ol. xiii. 31.) Among
the most ancient Cyclic poets we also find the names of Aeson, Eumelus, and Eumolpus,
all of whom were natives of Corinth. But after the time of Periander little attention
was paid to literature at Corinth; and among the illustrious writers of Greece
not a single Corinthian appears. It is mentioned by Cicero that Corinth did not
produce an orator (Brut. 13); and Deinarchus, the last and least important of
the Attic orators, is no exception, since, though a native of Corinth, he was
brought up at Athens, and practised his art in the latter city.
The wealth of the Corinthians gave rise to luxury and sensual indulgence.
It was the most licentious city in all Greece; and the number of merchants who
frequented it caused it to be the favourite resort of courtezans. The patron goddess
of the city was Aphrodite, who had a splendid temple on the Acrocorinthus, where
there were kept more than a thousand sacred female slaves (hierodouloi) for the
service of strangers. (Strab. viii. p. 378.) Hence they are called by Pindar (Fragm.
p. 244, Bergk) poluxenai neanides, amphipoloi Peithous en aphneioi Korinthoi.
In no other city of Greece do we find this institution of Hieroduli as a regular
part of the worship of Aphrodite; and there can be no doubt that it was introduced
into Corinth by the Phoenicians. Many of the Corinthian courtezans, such as Lais,
obtained such high sums as often to ruin the merchants who visited the city; whence
arose the proverb (Strab. viii. p. 378):-- ou pantos andros es Korinthon esth
ho plous: which Horace renders (Ep. i. 17. 36): -Non cuivis homini contingit adire
Corinthum.
So celebrated were the Corinthian courtezans, that they gave rise
to many other proverbial expressions. (Korinthiazesthai=mastropeuein e hetairein,
Pollux, ix. 6. § 75; Korinthia kore, i. e. a courtezan, Plat. Rep. iii. p. 404,
d.; so Korinthia pais, Poll. x. 7. § 25; Suidas, s. v. choiros; Muller, Dor. iv.
4. § 6.)
This extract is from: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854) (ed. William Smith, LLD). Cited June 2004 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
KYLLINI (Mountain) CORINTHIA
Invented by Hermes, Apollo plays with lyre upside down, made by Hermes out of tortoiseshell and given by him to Apollo, lyre still made out of tortoise-shell, given by Hermes to Amphion, the stones follow it, Amphion the first to finger lyre, one chord of lyre invented by Amphion, Apollo fights Hermes for lyre, Apollo represented playing lyre, Love represented with lyre, Lacedaemonians march to music of lyre, Thamyris with his broken lyre.
PATMOS (Island) DODEKANISSOS
The best MS. of the greater part of Plato is the Codex Clarkianus, secured in Patmos by Daniel Clarke, an Englishman, and now in the Bodleian Library (Oxford). It dates from A.D. 896, and does not include the Republic, of which the best copy is a Paris codex (Codex Parisinus A) of the eleventh century.
CORFU (Town) IONIAN ISLANDS
Homer tells us about the great Corfiot musician, the blind gleeman
Demodokos, who made Odysseus to weep with his song in the court of king Alcinous.
Since the time of the bards though, that sung the deeds of the mythical heroes
in the palaces of the kings, until the 19th century Corfu had traveled a long
way for the biggest part of which very little is known.
During the 6th century B.C. Cofru experienced a high economic growth
and as a consequence a favorable climate was created for the cultivation of the
arts and the cultural maters. Professor Theodore Pappas informs us that even during
the 2nd century B.C., with the aid of sponsors, theatrical and musical performances
were held preserving a longstanding tradition.
Later, during the Byzantine era, that ancient musical tradition is
interrupted. The rise of the Christendom meant that anything connected with the
ancient Greek religion had to be abandoned. The Byzantine theocracy and the Eastern
Church applied a relentless persecution of the instrumental music with the result
the evanescence of the polyphonic music and the growth of the eastern monophonic
music. Because of this preference it is fully understood the furore of St. John
Chrysostom against the instrumental music, something that has stamped the Greek
music until today.
After 1204 the Eastern influence on Corfu gradually disappears. During
the whole of the Foreign Occupation until the Union with Greece, the Western Lord's
influence on the local artistic production will increase. During that era the
Corfiot musical tradition will fuse with that of the refugees from the Greek mainland,
the settlers from the southern parts of Italy, the Western polyphony and later
with Belcanto. The consequence of this was the development not only of the popular
song and of the 'cantada' (always with a strong Western influence), but mainly
the cultivation of a musical life that was the spark and the force behind the
development of the Eptanisian Music.
The ecclesiastic music could not escape that influence, but the Greek
Orthodox Ecclesiastic Dogma remained untouched. During the Renaissance period
Corfu was on the route from Venice
to Crete and undoubtedly was
informed about the new literary and musical trends, but remained in the shadow
of the great creators of that time: Cornaro, Theotokopoulos and Leondaritis. When
in 1669 the Cretans found refuge in the Venetian occupied Corfu and the rest of
the Seven Islands, they brought
with them their original musical tradition. Singers, musicians and chanters influence
the musical tradition not only of the urban but also of the rural areas. The psalmody
of the Seven Islands with byzantine melodies and triphonic improvised accompaniment
until today is called 'Cretan melody'.
The construction of San Giacomo Theater in 1690 was decisive for the
musical matters and the further development of the westernized musical tradition
of Corfu. A lodge for the Nobles at first, transformed into a theater in 1720,
starts to accommodate opera performances in 1733 and becomes the oldest and most
important musical cradle of the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean, the fruits
of which Corfu enjoys until today.
The great Eptanisian Musical School with composers like Mantzaros,
Xyndas, Liberalis, Lambelet and Samaras were the peaks of this longstanding musical
tradition during the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Corfu and the
rest of the Seven Islands did not only offer the first Greek composers but the
first music teachers and the first professional musicians. In that time the Corfiots
became opera-mad and obtained a high standard artistic criterion. New buildings
were constructed (Municipal Theatre) to house the constantly increasing public
audience.
Today the Philharmonics of Corfu, that were established from 1840
onwards, are worthy holdovers of the local musical tradition. The numerous musical
bodies that exist today on the island: Philharmonics, Choirs, Odeums, Municipal
Symphonic Orchestra, and Chamber Music keep unbroken the ties with the musical
tradition of the past.
The creation in the last decade of the Musical High School and Lyceum,
and the Musical Department in the Ionian University came as an aid to the preservation
of the Corfiot musical tradition, which constantly gives artists and performers
to the rest of Greece. The creation of several Cultural Bodies and Unions, of
privet initiative in their majority, offer a constructive support for the present
and prepare an optimistic future for the Corfiot musical tradition.
This text is cited May 2003 from the Municipality of Kerkyra URL below, which contains images.
THESSALONIKI (Town) MAKEDONIA CENTRAL
For 36 years, the Children’s Choir of Aghia Triada of Thessaloniki
has been an example of juvenile cultural presence.
It was created by the gifted young musician Theodoros Papakonstantinou
(1948-1969); his foremost work, the Mass of St. John Chrysostomos, is often performed
by the Choir in the Holy Church of Aghia Triada. His elder brother, Vasilis Papakonstantinou,
became his successor. Under his direction, the choir won fame in Greece
and abroad (Italy, Hungary,
former Czechoslovakia, Germany,
Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia,
France, Switzerland).
The medals and prizes the Choir was awarded in both Panhellenic and
International competitions verify the high level of its performances. A highlight
in the Choir's career was its participation in the performance of the 3rd Symphony
of Leonard Bernstein (Athens,
1985), with the European Youth Orchestra and the Youth Choir of Vienna,
with the composer on the podium. The most recent appearances of the Choir took
place in the Thessaloniki Megaron; G. Mahler’s “Symphony No 8”,
B. Britten’s “War Requiem”, G. Bizet's “Carmen”
and Alkis Baltas’ Children’s Opera “Momo”.
This text is cited January 2004 from the Municipality
of Patmos, the Prefecture
of Dodecanese, the Holy
Monastery of St. John the Theologian and the Ministry
of the Aegean tourist pamphlet (2003).
It was founded in 1999, as a result of the desire of young chanters,
who serve with great devotion the lecterns of Holy Churches in Thessaloniki, to
create a new vocal ensemble, consisted of students of the three most important
teachers of this city: Ch. Theodosopoulos, Ath. Karamanis and Ch. Taliadoros.
From its first appearance, it already won the acclaim of critics for
its sound and style. The Choir participated in Petros Gaitanos’ CD “The
Source of Life” with Byzantine hymns devoted to Virgin Mary; it has also
appeared in the Thessaloniki Megaron, and in the Holy Churches of St.
Demetrius, God's
Wisdom and Panagouda;
it has participated in seminars, and often gives concerts with P. Gaitanos.
The Choir was named “Hedymelon” in the end of 2002. Ioannis
Tsamis is its leader.
This text is cited January 2004 from the Municipality
of Patmos, the Prefecture
of Dodecanese, the Holy
Monastery of St. John the Theologian and the Ministry
of the Aegean tourist pamphlet (2003).
AGION OROS (Mountain) HALKIDIKI
Painting, in the form of murals and icons, was practised on Mount
Athos without interruption from the 11th to the 19th century. There are 11th century
mosaics at Vatopedi and outstanding murals, executed around 1300 probably by Manuel
Panselinos, in the Protaton church. In the 16th century in particular Mount Athos
attracted the most eminent names associated with Orthodox painting.
In 1535 the Cretan Theophanis decorated the katholikon of the Great
Lavra and later, in 1546, together with his son Symeon the katholikon of Stavronikita
Monastery. Tzortzis, another Cretan, painted in the monasteries of Dionysiou
(1547) and Docheiariou
(1568); Cretan Antonios (1544) painted in Xenophontos.
Artistic output declined in the 17th century, but was revived in the 18th, when
painters from Epirus and Macedonia were invited to work on Athos.
By kind permission of:Ekdotike Athenon
This text is cited Nov 2003 from the Macedonian Heritage URL below, which contains image.
ATHENS (Ancient city) GREECE
The Stoic School was founded in 322 B.C. by Zeno of Cittium
and existed until the closing of the Athenian schools (A.D. 429), (it took the
name from the Stoa poikile, the painted hall or colonnade in which the lectures
were held.)
Its history may be divided into three parts: (1) Ancient Stoicism;
(2) Middle Stoicism; (3) New Stoicism.
Ancient Stoicism (322-204)
Zeno of Cittium
(b. 366; d. in 280) was the disciple of Crates the Cynic and the academicians
Stilpo, Xenocrates, and Polemon. After his death (264), Cleanthes of Assium (b.
331; d. 232) became head of the school; Chrysippus of Soli
(b. 280), succeeded and was scholarch until 204. These philosophers, all of Oriental
origin, lived in Athens where
Zeno played a part in politics and were in communication with the principal men
of their day.
The Stoic doctrine, of which Zeno laid the foundations, was developed
by Chrysippus in 705 treatises, of which only some fragments have been preserved.
In addition to the principles accepted by all thinkers of their age (the perception
of the true, if it exists, can only be immediate; the wise man is self-sufficient;
the political constitution is indifferent), derived from the Sophists and the
Cynics, they base the entire moral attitude of the wise man conformity to oneself
and nature, indifference to external things on a comprehensive concept of nature,
in part derived from Heraclitus, but inspired by an entirely new spirit. It is
a belief in a universal nature that is at one and the same time Fate infallibly
regulating the course of events (eimarmene, logos); Zeus, or providence, the eternal
principle of finality adapting all other things to the needs of rational beings;
the law determining the natural rules that govern the society of men and of the
gods; the artistic fire, the expression of the active force which produced the
world one, perfect, and complete from the beginning, with which it will be reunited
through the universal conflagration, following a regular and ever recurring cycle.
The popular gods are different forms of this force, described allegorically in
myths. This view of nature is the basis for the optimism of the Stoic moral system;
confidence in the instinctive faculties, which, in the absence of a perfect knowledge
of the world, ought to guide man's actions; and again, the infallible wisdom of
the sage, which Chrysippus tries to establish by a dialectic derived from Aristotle
and the Cynics.
But this optimism requires them to solve the following problems: the
origin of the passions and the vices; the conciliation of fate and liberty; the
origin of evil in the world. On the last two subjects they propounded all the
arguments that were advanced later up to the time of Leibniz.
Middle Stoicism (second and first centuries B.C.)
Stoicism during this period was no longer a Greek school; it had penetrated
into the Roman world and had become, under the influence of Scipio's friend, Panaetius
(185-112), who lived in Rome,
and of Posidonius, (135-40) who transferred the school to Rhodes,
the quasi-official philosophy of Roman imperialism. Its doctrines were considerably
modified, becoming less dogmatic in consequence of the criticism of the new Academician,
Carneades (215-129). In Stoic morality, Panaetius develops the idea of humanity.
Posidonius at once a savant, historian, geographer, mathematician, astronomer
and a mystic who commenting on Plato's works, revives his theories on the nature
and destiny of the soul.
New Stoicism (to A.D. 429)
The new Stoicism is more ethical and didactic. Science is
no longer the knowledge of nature, but a kind of theological summa of moral and
religious sentiments. Very little has been preserved of the short popular treatises
and discourses, wherein a vivid style introduced under the influence of the Cynic
diatribe, the philosopher endeavored to render his ethical principles practical.
The letters of Seneca (2-68) to Lucilius, the conversations of Musonius (time
of Nero), and of Epictetus (age of Domitian), the fragments of Hierocles (time
of Hadrian), the members of Marcus Aurelius (d. 180), give but an incomplete idea.
Stoicism, which generally disappeared as the official School, was the most important
of the Hellenistic elements in the semi-oriental religions of vanishing paganism.
This text is cited June 2003 from the Malaspina Great Books URL below, which contains image.
Democritus of Abdera, commonly known as the Laughing Philosopher, probably because he did not consider the study of truth inconsistent with a cheerful countenance, believed and taught that all bodies were continually throwing off certain images like themselves, which subtle emanations, striking on our bodily organs, gave rise to our sensations.
FLIOUS (Ancient city) NEMEA
A Pythagorean school apparently flourished at Phlious at the end of the 5th c. (Diog. Laert. 8.46) and the city provides the setting for Plato's Phaedo (Perseus Project - The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites)
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin - The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
HELLAS (Ancient country) GREECE
The Great, epic poem, attributed to Hesiod, on the father of Epidaurus, on suitors of Hippodamia, on Hyettus, on Meleager, on Mycene, on the wife and children of Phylas, on Pirene.
The sculpture of Greece is definitely one of the most influential
artistic movements of any ancient culture. Even though Greece itself was influenced
visibly in the beginning by strong trade routes, especially with Persia
to the east and Egypt to
the south, they quickly assimilated these methods and characteristics of the older
civilizations and created within a few thousand years a lasting inspiration that
fueled many other advances in culture and art. The Romans most notably copied
Greek sculpture's perfect forms from the Classical and Hellenistic ages and it's
through their assimilation of the Greek culture that most of our sculptures survive
today. Later revivals of antiquities were given new life and power in the Renaissance
of Italy. One is hard pressed
to imagine what the Renaissance would have been without the influences of this
ancient Greek art form.
The sculptural standard that the ancient Greeks created has carried
itself gallantly even into this modern day, changing its form and meaning to meet
the demands of new civilizations and fluctuating cultures. We see this in our
park sculptures, our increasing image bytes and even into the new stylus abstractions
of modern art. The treatment of the form, especially the human form, had its strongest
foundation stones laid down by the sculptures of ancient Greece.
The sculpture of Greece is definitely one of the most influential
artistic movements of any ancient culture. Even though Greece itself was influenced
visibly in the beginning by strong trade routes, especially with Persia
to the east and Egypt to
the south, they quickly assimilated these methods and characteristics of the older
civilizations and created within a few thousand years a lasting inspiration that
fueled many other advances in culture and art. The Romans most notably copied
Greek sculpture's perfect forms from the Classical and Hellenistic ages and it's
through their assimilation of the Greek culture that most of our sculptures survive
today. Later revivals of antiquities were given new life and power in the Renaissance
of Italy. One is hard pressed
to imagine what the Renaissance would have been without the influences of this
ancient Greek art form.
The sculptural standard that the ancient Greeks created has carried
itself gallantly even into this modern day, changing its form and meaning to meet
the demands of new civilizations and fluctuating cultures. We see this in our
park sculptures, our increasing image bytes and even into the new stylus abstractions
of modern art. The treatment of the form, especially the human form, had its strongest
foundation stones laid down by the sculptures of ancient Greece.
by Nathan Marcel & Dana Starkey
Most of the sculptures that we have today from the Neolithic age are
in the form of “votives” or aids in worshipping. Some figurines are
carved from rock others are made of clay. The most famous of these are female
fertility figures or “Great Mother Goddess”. These figurines are found
all over the ancient world and are identified by the typical roundness and bulging
forms. The Neolithic sculptors placed a heavy emphasis on the childbearing hips
and sexual parts sometimes entirely dropping away the feet and hands.
They seem unconcerned with the faces as well, or maybe these have
just rubbed off over time. They are usually small enough to fit in the palm of
your hand and with this evidence we can believe they were used by nomadic people.
We can also imagine the idea of these figurines traveling perhaps outside of the
communities where they were made in easily.
During the middle Neolithic period 4800 - 4400 BC, the Sesklo civilization
was known for their pottery and their similar figurines. This popular theory of
the female “fertility figure” has been questioned or challenged by
some who believe that too much emphasis has been placed on the “Mother Goddess”
belief. Attention has not been shown to human male figurines and animal figurines
that have surfaced along with the known female “fertility figures”.
Overall it is unclear how or why these statues were used.
In the Bronze Age we begin to see a refinement in sculpture developing.
Settlements start springing up along trade routes with other countries and from
this we can notice regional developments, native populations outlining their
own standards of style.
Early Mesopotamian votive statues Most Greek artists are heavily influenced
by Mesopotamia and Egypt.
We believe that ancient sailors brought new votive images to their citizenry.
As far as art historians can tell, the earliest of the Bronze Age sculptures do
not happen on mainland Greece; instead they happen on the surrounding cluster
of islands.
Cycladic Art
Some of the earliest images are from the Cycladic
Islands The sculptures are monuments or idols usually made of marble. These
are almost always female goddess/spirits with folded arms. They were used for
markers buried near or with their dead. They have a very geometric and angular
quality. Most of the statues represented were slim, pubescent nude females. These
figurines followed a particular stance which enabled them to stand independently.
The face is flat and oval shaped with an elongated nose. The face tilts slightly
upward whilst the wedge-shaped body is tightly pressed with two folded arms against
the torso. Both legs are pressed together and bend minimally at the knees whilst
the feet are pointed at a downward angle. It is believed the Cycladic statues
most likely descended from the voluptuous full bodied fertility figurines during
the Old Stone age. It is unknown why the slim figurines replaced the Old Stone
age figurines. However, religious beliefs were the most probable explanation.
It is thought that the largest figurines may have had some association with the
sun in the cycle of life and death. Smaller statue versions were kept in households,
although their meaning is unclear. These statues have also been located in Marathon
and Santorini. The Cycladic
sculptures were the only female nude statues created until the mid-fourth century
BC.
Most of the sculpture from the Bronze Age on Greece comes from Mycenean
settlements. The development of Mycenean sculpture seems to reflect heavy influence
from Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Minoan art (from Crete).
The major cultural center around Greece during this time was on the
Island of Crete where the rich
had time to build impressive palaces and explore fanciful arts such as wall painting,
vessel making and some sculpture, both in relief and free standing. The Minoan
prosperity is probably due in a large part to their being on an island so they
didn't have to face the constant threat of being invaded, as well as being on
the shipping routes. The most famous palace on Crete
is the palace of King Minos and from the name of the King we call this period
Minoan Civilization.
Minoan Art
Minoan civilization, as mentioned above, was by far the most cultured.
We are still unraveling the mystery as to why this culture did not survive through
the dark ages. Minoan sculpture is refined and sophisticated in a playful manner.
The “Snake Goddess” is an example of some of the fine Minoan craftsmanship.
It has been suggested that the snakes are associated with male fertility and the
goddess's bared breasts are associated with female fertility. The goddess's large
eyes with heavy arched eyebrows are indications of kingship. One particular symbol
that is a trade mark of the Minoan civilization is the bull. Bulls were depicted
in both painting and sculpture. One particular example that demonstrates the Minoans'
skill is a rhyton (drinking horn) that is in the shape of a bull. This particular
piece is from Knossos and
dates back to 1500-1450 BC. The bull rhyton has carved shaggy fur, crystal eyes
and a muzzle decorated with shells.
Mycenean Art
Most sculpture found in the areas of the Greek mainland of ancient
Mycenae has been unearthed
from their shaft graves and beehive tombs. The most impressive specimens are made
of gold. Most of the style development seems to come from Minoan influence as
well as a style probably descendent from the ancient Greek tribes, their ancestors.
The Mycenaeans made clay figures, not bronze, due to their unfamiliarity with
the casting process. Many of their statues were imported. The Minoan and Egyptians
civilizations were in close contact with the Mycenaeans and imported sculptures
and other decorative items.
Very little sculpture survives from the dark age in Greece, if much
sculpture was even made. What we do have for these 300 years in the way of sculptures
are small temple offerings, mostly of little animals made of stone and clay. Especially
worth noting are the number of horse statues. The Greeks were very fond of horses.
The largest development during this time was in vase making. Pottery
seems to have offered a more practical endeavor for artists, one linked directly
to survival and supply and demand. But after about 800 BC the Greeks rapidly start
developing a sculptural history expressing an interest in the human figure and
architectural decoration.
What emerges from the Dark Ages are sculptures that can definitely
be identified with the Greek peoples, even though most influences can be traced
to Egypt and Mesopotamia.
During this time however we begin to see an emerging Greek identity. This new
identity rapidly advances over 400 years into a defined visual language concentrated
on the expression of natural perfection in the human form. In comparing and contrasting
the Greek statue style to the Egyptian, it can be noted that the early Greek archaic
statues appear rigid, stylized and less natural. An Example would be depictions
of women. The Egyptian statues of woman allowed the legs and hips to show their
outline through their skirts. The Greek female statues showed the skirt as a solid
form, with only the toes shown below. This is not to say that the Greeks had no
admirable qualities. They mastered the ability to create statues that were free
standing. The Egyptians supported their statues to some extent in stone background.
Other differences can be seen in the eyes. The Greek statue's eyes were huge with
a direct stare, yet Egyptians portrayed their statues with a faraway gaze. There
are two general terms given to the statues. The female statues are referred to
as Kore, which means maiden, and the male statues are Kouros, meaning youth. It
is unknown why the females are depicted clothed yet the males nude. Both Greek
and Egyptian statues share the same stance where one foot is in front of the other
. According to some researchers, a pair of parted human lower legs was the hieroglyph
for walking. The Egyptian stance was to be understood as a symbol. However the
Greeks interpreted the stance as a man standing at rest. Some depictions of the
Kouros show him with a beard, which suggests a man of full maturity. The bodies
of the Kouros depict physical perfection or the ideal body which is similar to
Egyptian depictions of the human body. Slight changes in the statues began to
appear around 500 BC and before, such as the Kouros carved with a smile known
as the Archaic smile (sign of life). A famous example of a Kouros with a smile
would be the Rampin Head dated 560 BC. The Kouros statue also began to be depicted
with tight cloaks still allowing the body's form to be seen, yet leading away
from total nudes. The Kore statue's clothing is depicted in a more realistic light
with slight folds and creases. For the most part, the Kore does not go through
as many changes as the Kouros. The hair on both male and female statues is carved
in a stylized pattern, almost to resemble a wig. The overall image of both statues
becomes less rigid and has a softer and rounder look.
We can trace the rigid geometry and angular style to paintings done
on pottery at this time. It is interesting to note that these ancient sculptures
were almost always painted. This would add an element of realism that unfortunately
we cannot experience today.
Out of the Archaic period we also begin to see a major emphasis on
decorative architectural sculpture. The most important of these sculptures are
done in the pediments and facades of temples. These start out being high relief
sculptures carved into the stone deeply in order to bring them forth from the
background. They gradually began putting relief sculptures into other areas of
the new monumental buildings. By the end of the Archaic period we find balanced
designs of the human form in action. High relief gives way to separate standing
statues in architectural decoration. The major theme of the statues of this time
are gods and mortals in battle, they loom impressively over the entrances in proportions
close to life-size.
The severe style roughly covers the first 50 - 80 years of the early
classical period. It is marked by the abandonment of the Archaic smile and more
interest and concentration on representing human nature and form in art. Overall,
most of the sculptures are markedly more sober and realistic. The poses and action
of the sculptures begin to loosen up in this short period but still remain rather
stiff. Opening up is mostly due to the “contrapposto” pose. This is
an Italian word meaning “counterpoise” which describes the stance
of one leg held back as it supports the weight of the body while the other leg
remains loose and free. This adds an amount of realism to the statues. The realism
is in the way it brings a sway to the hips and body and engages the viewer easier
by this new animation and expression.
Another notable development that begins is the increasing use of bronze
in sculpture. They began to use bronze as an artistic medium because it is stronger
than marble and doesn't need supports for open poses with outstretched arms or
wide stances. These facts helped artists explore more daring poses without as
much fear of damage or breakage. It is from this that sculpture develops “in
the round”, which means that the sculpture wasn't meant to be seen from
just one angle but was able to be seen from all sides. This led to an increase
of action-oriented themes and confident mastery of anatomy. An example of a bronze
sculpture in the conroposto pose is “Zeus” who stands at six feet
and ten inches. The statue of Zeus is poised as if he were about to hurl a lightning
bolt. This statue shows the contrast of stability in the midst of motion, which
are the key components that make this sculpture so grand and powerful.
One of the first celebrated works of the fifth century that we can
define as the classical style is the very famous “Disk Thrower” statue
by Myron. Almost all of the famous classical and Hellenistic statues that survive
today are marble Roman copies from the original bronze sculptures. Myron's Disk-Thrower
(Discobolos) is no exception. It was so famous in ancient Greece and Italy
that many copies were and have been made over the ages. Myron achieved the fame
of this statue by representing a frozen moment in time through the twisting balanced
movement, and in the way he rendered the realism of the anatomy and the thrust
of the figure's weight in an expressive split second of time that has stood for
over two millennia.
Phidias was another major sculptor of the early classical period.
He was responsible for the amazing marble decorations of the Parthenon. His sculptures
also show a realism that had not been seen before. All of the very famous sculptors
at this time enjoyed a degree of celebrity status. Phidias was probably the greatest
sculptor/celebrity. He was helped by the powerful political leader Pericles who
was rebuilding Athens. Pericles
noticed the sculptor's skill and mastery of the medium and made Phidias chief
architect, sculptor, painter and designer of the new buildings being erected on
the Acropolis, among other public
works programs. One of the legendary sculptures by Phidias was his creation of
the colossal statue of Athena made of gold and ivory in the temple, as well as
the novel, celebrated frieze built behind the columns of the Parthenon, 4 feet
high and 523 feet long. The frieze was a vivid illustration of the religious procession
that took place in Athens
to honor the goddess Athena every four years. It stands as one of the greatest
reliefs in the world because of the rhythmic movements and the absence of repeated
stiff forms, so often seen on monumental friezes throughout history.
Another one of the developments that really separates the classical
style from earlier styles is the quality of “Pathos” that the statues
begin to develop. Pathos is the Greek word meaning “suffering” and
becomes a major movement in later Hellenistic styles. An ideal statue depicting
the quality of pathos is the “Dying Niobid” dated 450-440 BC. One
can see the quality of pathos in the body's pose and facial expressions. According
to the legend, Niobid insulted Apollo and Artemis's mother by boasting of her
seven sons and seven daughters. The two gods killed all of the children. The statue
depicts Niobid sinking to her knees after being shot in the back while running.
As she reaches behind to pull the arrow out, her garment has slipped off, leaving
her nude. This statue is the earliest large female in Greek art to be nude. The
self-contained suffering is expressed on her face.
Other sculptors worth mentioning included a late classical or pre-Hellenistic
flavor, such as Scopas who was one of the sculptors at the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
His style is marked by deep set eyes and dramatic sweeping gestures.
Praxiteles was another sculptor who worked on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
His most famous sculptures are standing gods who achieve a perfection of flesh
and grace that established his fame and reputation throughout the ancient world.
They are relaxed and polished forms that for the first time in Greek sculpture
are wrapped in an atmosphere and feeling that glows from within.
Another sculptor that enjoys lasting fame and respect is Lysippus
who set new proportions for the human body, he changed the style of sculpture
through these new proportions and other sculptors followed his lead. His figures
were more slender and lithe with smaller heads and expressive postures that began
to break from the ordinary contrapposto. His figures also show a new kind of spontaneity.
His most famous sculpture “The scraper” is the statue of a young athlete
with messy hair scraping olive oil from his body as was the practice of cleaning
oneself at this time.
During the Hellenistic era Greek sculptures were spread throughout
vast territories due to the continuing expansion of Greek territories and colonies,
but despite this expansion, Greek sculpture continued to become more Greek. The
tides of culture had turned. Rather than being greatly influenced by other cultures,
the Greeks were influencing other cultures, in the arts and in other ways. A dramatically
different character of sculpture can be noted during this period, more victorious
and stately, reflecting the pride the Greeks had begun to feel in their accomplishments.
This was done by placing a greater emphasis on pathos as well as greater spontaneity
and a greater variety of poses.
The sculptors of this era begin to challenge the set patterns of standing
sculptures and displayed more expressiveness and greater variety. The sculptures
develop a heavier quality. More weight and balance can be felt, especially in
the structure of the Pergamum
altar. From about 180 BC the most impressive part of the Pergamum
altar is the great frieze that confronts the viewer. It is bold. The subject is
the battle of the Gods and the Giants, which was seen as a symbol of the Greeks'
victories in their own wars. The altar however, abandons subtlety and relies instead
on the dramatic muscular bodies and extreme poses that almost break out of their
swirling garments. Even as the figures fall wounded, they threaten to come off
the surface. Done in tremendous dynamic movement the entire design is overwhelming.
Playing through the throes of combat, the pathos on the faces shows the violence
of struggle in battle and in unity with the strain and emotion of the body. Another
battle related sculpture is the “Dying Trumpeter”. (230-220 BC) This
statue was created in order to celebrate the victory of Attalus I of Pergamum
(a city in north-west Asia Minor)
over the Celts. The sculptor must have had some knowledge of the Celts for his
art remarkably depicts their facial characteristics. Also the knotted rope around
the trumpeter's neck is another Celtic symbol. The pathos expression of the mortally
wounded trumpet player is that of silent dignity and pain. The trumpeter earns
the viewers' respect for his acceptance of death, yet his lingering strength can
be detected in the weight of his arms that are his only support.
The Nike of Samothrace
has been called “the greatest masterpiece of Hellenistic sculpture”
because of its feeling of movement. The wind and air whip around and through the
folds in her clothing. You can feel the atmosphere as it ruffles the feathers
of the wings thrown back behind her body as the goddess lands on the prow of a
ship. In all its amazing fantasy and fantastic realism it moves through the space
around it with forceful animated action and advancement.
Another aspect of Hellenistic sculpture are the small scale statuettes
often called “Tanagra figurines” produced in shops for private ownership.
These are an exception to the otherwise mythological themes. Even though they
do include some of them in the beginning, they begin to represent everyday people
and rarely do we find the monumental public sculpture qualities. Instead, most
of the figures simply lean or walk, or sit, and the subjects are just everyday
people, street beggars, entertainers, dancers, fashionable ladies, and gymnasts,
among others.
Before we can leave Hellenistic sculpture we should give some credit
to the Laocoon Group which was found in Rome
in 1506 AD. It has been identified as a Roman copy of a Greek original. It shows
the tragic death of Laocoon and his two sons when they were punished by the gods
for warning the Trojans not to admit the Greeks' wooden horse into their city.
It has been said that the death of Laocoon was the first in a chain of events
leading to the founding of Rome,
and therefore an important myth. It is also an incredibly important piece because
when it was unearthed in Rome,
it influenced many Renaissance artists. Among those was Michelangelo who must
have been impressed by the bulging, straining musculature and the vigorous triad
of the figures. It also seems hard to imagine that he would forget the extreme
sense of pathos on the faces of the figures as they are caught in the serpents'
writhing forms, struggling to the death.
LEMNOS (LIMNOS) (Island) NORTH AEGEAN
The brilliant stone built wells of Poliohny's,
they testify the ancient deposits of art of lapidaries in Limnos.
In the newer years, the impressive blossoming of the stone structure,
serves the needs of decoration of the houses of the rich and the public buildings
and especially the schools of the 19th century but also monuments, of the heroes
and the churches. Almost in each settlement, the visitor will meet samples of
work of local anonymous craftsmen in the transoms and in the balconies of houses,
in the facade of the school buildings, in the stone belfries but also in the monuments
usually in the squares of villages or in the two allied cemeteries (Moudrou
and Portianou).
Impressively are also, the scattered, mainly in the abandoned houses and in the
"stone yards" handy stone implements or objects as, hand mills for the grinding
of the cereals, stone water tanks for the watering of the animals as well as the
innumerable wells in the countryside and the springs almost in each settlement.
The springs also constitute, an important element of the local culture
and their usual monumental character, symbolizes the exceptional importance of
the running water in an arid place.
Traditionally limnian wine-pressers (stone pots sculpted in soft rock)
in big clumps, we meet mainly in the villages Repanidi,
Romanos, Varos
and Rousopoulj.
They were usually bevelled in Community spaces (specifically in Varos there are
many private ones) near the villages and it appears that their use was common
to all residents. Their capacity is between 1,5 and 2 tones and was used mainly
for the stepping of the grapes but also for the keeping of cereals in times of
piracy.
This text is cited March 2004 from the Municipality of Moudros URL below, which contains images.
TINOS (Island) KYKLADES
The role of Tinos in the revival of modern Greek art is significant
in the field of painting, but even more so in that of sculpture.
Marble sculpture flourished both in the pre- and post-revolutionary
period. (Especially in the north-western part of the island, in Pirgos and Panorma).
The chisels of Tinian sculptors created works adorning churches, grave stones,
and squares in practically every Greek town, even in the faraway regions of
Asia Minor.
We can only guess at the reasons of this creative wave. Here are
several possible explanations:
•Tinos happened to be the only Greek island that did not experience the
brunt of Ottoman oppression, as Turkish occupation only lasted for about a century.
•Since ancient times, there are quarries of white marble, as well as plenty
of green marble, slate and granite in the north-western parts of the island.
Therefore, it is only natural that the presence of these materials influenced
the development of this art form.
•The environment has its impact on people and calls upon their natural
inclination for artistic creativity.
There are two traditional versions:
•The father of Phidias was from Tinos.
•The above mentioned great sculptor of antiquity, while in exile, taught
Tinians his artistic skills. His presence on the island was due to the fortunate
coincidence that the ship which brought him to Delos was grounded in the region
of Kionia.
The eminent Tinian artists are the founders of modern Greek painting
and sculpture. During the establishment of the independent Greek state, after
the post-revolutionary period, Tinian artists created all the remarkable buildings
that now grace Athens (Archeological Museum, Academy, University, Parliament)
and other Greek cities. Since 1955, the Fine Arts School opened in Pirgos on
Tinos and taught hundreds of artists. Today, many of these are well-known in
Greece.
This text is cited Apr 2003 from the University of Patras' XENIOS DIAS website URL below.
Tiniot popular artists were not only talented marble sculptors: they also excelled in woodcarving. Unfortunately, not many items of their work have been preserved to this day. Among eminent woodcarvers we can cite Hatzinikolos Printezis. At the beginning of the last century, he created the dais, entirely carved in wood, of the church of Anastaseos. Ioannis Kollaros, together with Printesos, became known for their creations of figureheads for ships, samples of which can be found in the National Museum of Athens.
This text is cited Apr 2003 from the University of Patras' XENIOS DIAS website URL below.
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