Listed 26 sub titles with search on: Culture & Arts subjects for destination: "HELLAS Ancient country GREECE".
University of Tennessee at Martin
The Great, epic poem, attributed to Hesiod, on the father of Epidaurus, on suitors of Hippodamia, on Hyettus, on Meleager, on Mycene, on the wife and children of Phylas, on Pirene.
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin
University of Tennessee at Martin - The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The sculpture of Greece is definitely one of the most influential
artistic movements of any ancient culture. Even though Greece itself was influenced
visibly in the beginning by strong trade routes, especially with Persia
to the east and Egypt to
the south, they quickly assimilated these methods and characteristics of the older
civilizations and created within a few thousand years a lasting inspiration that
fueled many other advances in culture and art. The Romans most notably copied
Greek sculpture's perfect forms from the Classical and Hellenistic ages and it's
through their assimilation of the Greek culture that most of our sculptures survive
today. Later revivals of antiquities were given new life and power in the Renaissance
of Italy. One is hard pressed
to imagine what the Renaissance would have been without the influences of this
ancient Greek art form.
The sculptural standard that the ancient Greeks created has carried
itself gallantly even into this modern day, changing its form and meaning to meet
the demands of new civilizations and fluctuating cultures. We see this in our
park sculptures, our increasing image bytes and even into the new stylus abstractions
of modern art. The treatment of the form, especially the human form, had its strongest
foundation stones laid down by the sculptures of ancient Greece.
The sculpture of Greece is definitely one of the most influential
artistic movements of any ancient culture. Even though Greece itself was influenced
visibly in the beginning by strong trade routes, especially with Persia
to the east and Egypt to
the south, they quickly assimilated these methods and characteristics of the older
civilizations and created within a few thousand years a lasting inspiration that
fueled many other advances in culture and art. The Romans most notably copied
Greek sculpture's perfect forms from the Classical and Hellenistic ages and it's
through their assimilation of the Greek culture that most of our sculptures survive
today. Later revivals of antiquities were given new life and power in the Renaissance
of Italy. One is hard pressed
to imagine what the Renaissance would have been without the influences of this
ancient Greek art form.
The sculptural standard that the ancient Greeks created has carried
itself gallantly even into this modern day, changing its form and meaning to meet
the demands of new civilizations and fluctuating cultures. We see this in our
park sculptures, our increasing image bytes and even into the new stylus abstractions
of modern art. The treatment of the form, especially the human form, had its strongest
foundation stones laid down by the sculptures of ancient Greece.
by Nathan Marcel & Dana Starkey
Most of the sculptures that we have today from the Neolithic age are
in the form of “votives” or aids in worshipping. Some figurines are
carved from rock others are made of clay. The most famous of these are female
fertility figures or “Great Mother Goddess”. These figurines are found
all over the ancient world and are identified by the typical roundness and bulging
forms. The Neolithic sculptors placed a heavy emphasis on the childbearing hips
and sexual parts sometimes entirely dropping away the feet and hands.
They seem unconcerned with the faces as well, or maybe these have
just rubbed off over time. They are usually small enough to fit in the palm of
your hand and with this evidence we can believe they were used by nomadic people.
We can also imagine the idea of these figurines traveling perhaps outside of the
communities where they were made in easily.
During the middle Neolithic period 4800 - 4400 BC, the Sesklo civilization
was known for their pottery and their similar figurines. This popular theory of
the female “fertility figure” has been questioned or challenged by
some who believe that too much emphasis has been placed on the “Mother Goddess”
belief. Attention has not been shown to human male figurines and animal figurines
that have surfaced along with the known female “fertility figures”.
Overall it is unclear how or why these statues were used.
In the Bronze Age we begin to see a refinement in sculpture developing.
Settlements start springing up along trade routes with other countries and from
this we can notice regional developments, native populations outlining their
own standards of style.
Early Mesopotamian votive statues Most Greek artists are heavily influenced
by Mesopotamia and Egypt.
We believe that ancient sailors brought new votive images to their citizenry.
As far as art historians can tell, the earliest of the Bronze Age sculptures do
not happen on mainland Greece; instead they happen on the surrounding cluster
of islands.
Cycladic Art
Some of the earliest images are from the Cycladic
Islands The sculptures are monuments or idols usually made of marble. These
are almost always female goddess/spirits with folded arms. They were used for
markers buried near or with their dead. They have a very geometric and angular
quality. Most of the statues represented were slim, pubescent nude females. These
figurines followed a particular stance which enabled them to stand independently.
The face is flat and oval shaped with an elongated nose. The face tilts slightly
upward whilst the wedge-shaped body is tightly pressed with two folded arms against
the torso. Both legs are pressed together and bend minimally at the knees whilst
the feet are pointed at a downward angle. It is believed the Cycladic statues
most likely descended from the voluptuous full bodied fertility figurines during
the Old Stone age. It is unknown why the slim figurines replaced the Old Stone
age figurines. However, religious beliefs were the most probable explanation.
It is thought that the largest figurines may have had some association with the
sun in the cycle of life and death. Smaller statue versions were kept in households,
although their meaning is unclear. These statues have also been located in Marathon
and Santorini. The Cycladic
sculptures were the only female nude statues created until the mid-fourth century
BC.
Most of the sculpture from the Bronze Age on Greece comes from Mycenean
settlements. The development of Mycenean sculpture seems to reflect heavy influence
from Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Minoan art (from Crete).
The major cultural center around Greece during this time was on the
Island of Crete where the rich
had time to build impressive palaces and explore fanciful arts such as wall painting,
vessel making and some sculpture, both in relief and free standing. The Minoan
prosperity is probably due in a large part to their being on an island so they
didn't have to face the constant threat of being invaded, as well as being on
the shipping routes. The most famous palace on Crete
is the palace of King Minos and from the name of the King we call this period
Minoan Civilization.
Minoan Art
Minoan civilization, as mentioned above, was by far the most cultured.
We are still unraveling the mystery as to why this culture did not survive through
the dark ages. Minoan sculpture is refined and sophisticated in a playful manner.
The “Snake Goddess” is an example of some of the fine Minoan craftsmanship.
It has been suggested that the snakes are associated with male fertility and the
goddess's bared breasts are associated with female fertility. The goddess's large
eyes with heavy arched eyebrows are indications of kingship. One particular symbol
that is a trade mark of the Minoan civilization is the bull. Bulls were depicted
in both painting and sculpture. One particular example that demonstrates the Minoans'
skill is a rhyton (drinking horn) that is in the shape of a bull. This particular
piece is from Knossos and
dates back to 1500-1450 BC. The bull rhyton has carved shaggy fur, crystal eyes
and a muzzle decorated with shells.
Mycenean Art
Most sculpture found in the areas of the Greek mainland of ancient
Mycenae has been unearthed
from their shaft graves and beehive tombs. The most impressive specimens are made
of gold. Most of the style development seems to come from Minoan influence as
well as a style probably descendent from the ancient Greek tribes, their ancestors.
The Mycenaeans made clay figures, not bronze, due to their unfamiliarity with
the casting process. Many of their statues were imported. The Minoan and Egyptians
civilizations were in close contact with the Mycenaeans and imported sculptures
and other decorative items.
Very little sculpture survives from the dark age in Greece, if much
sculpture was even made. What we do have for these 300 years in the way of sculptures
are small temple offerings, mostly of little animals made of stone and clay. Especially
worth noting are the number of horse statues. The Greeks were very fond of horses.
The largest development during this time was in vase making. Pottery
seems to have offered a more practical endeavor for artists, one linked directly
to survival and supply and demand. But after about 800 BC the Greeks rapidly start
developing a sculptural history expressing an interest in the human figure and
architectural decoration.
What emerges from the Dark Ages are sculptures that can definitely
be identified with the Greek peoples, even though most influences can be traced
to Egypt and Mesopotamia.
During this time however we begin to see an emerging Greek identity. This new
identity rapidly advances over 400 years into a defined visual language concentrated
on the expression of natural perfection in the human form. In comparing and contrasting
the Greek statue style to the Egyptian, it can be noted that the early Greek archaic
statues appear rigid, stylized and less natural. An Example would be depictions
of women. The Egyptian statues of woman allowed the legs and hips to show their
outline through their skirts. The Greek female statues showed the skirt as a solid
form, with only the toes shown below. This is not to say that the Greeks had no
admirable qualities. They mastered the ability to create statues that were free
standing. The Egyptians supported their statues to some extent in stone background.
Other differences can be seen in the eyes. The Greek statue's eyes were huge with
a direct stare, yet Egyptians portrayed their statues with a faraway gaze. There
are two general terms given to the statues. The female statues are referred to
as Kore, which means maiden, and the male statues are Kouros, meaning youth. It
is unknown why the females are depicted clothed yet the males nude. Both Greek
and Egyptian statues share the same stance where one foot is in front of the other
. According to some researchers, a pair of parted human lower legs was the hieroglyph
for walking. The Egyptian stance was to be understood as a symbol. However the
Greeks interpreted the stance as a man standing at rest. Some depictions of the
Kouros show him with a beard, which suggests a man of full maturity. The bodies
of the Kouros depict physical perfection or the ideal body which is similar to
Egyptian depictions of the human body. Slight changes in the statues began to
appear around 500 BC and before, such as the Kouros carved with a smile known
as the Archaic smile (sign of life). A famous example of a Kouros with a smile
would be the Rampin Head dated 560 BC. The Kouros statue also began to be depicted
with tight cloaks still allowing the body's form to be seen, yet leading away
from total nudes. The Kore statue's clothing is depicted in a more realistic light
with slight folds and creases. For the most part, the Kore does not go through
as many changes as the Kouros. The hair on both male and female statues is carved
in a stylized pattern, almost to resemble a wig. The overall image of both statues
becomes less rigid and has a softer and rounder look.
We can trace the rigid geometry and angular style to paintings done
on pottery at this time. It is interesting to note that these ancient sculptures
were almost always painted. This would add an element of realism that unfortunately
we cannot experience today.
Out of the Archaic period we also begin to see a major emphasis on
decorative architectural sculpture. The most important of these sculptures are
done in the pediments and facades of temples. These start out being high relief
sculptures carved into the stone deeply in order to bring them forth from the
background. They gradually began putting relief sculptures into other areas of
the new monumental buildings. By the end of the Archaic period we find balanced
designs of the human form in action. High relief gives way to separate standing
statues in architectural decoration. The major theme of the statues of this time
are gods and mortals in battle, they loom impressively over the entrances in proportions
close to life-size.
The severe style roughly covers the first 50 - 80 years of the early
classical period. It is marked by the abandonment of the Archaic smile and more
interest and concentration on representing human nature and form in art. Overall,
most of the sculptures are markedly more sober and realistic. The poses and action
of the sculptures begin to loosen up in this short period but still remain rather
stiff. Opening up is mostly due to the “contrapposto” pose. This is
an Italian word meaning “counterpoise” which describes the stance
of one leg held back as it supports the weight of the body while the other leg
remains loose and free. This adds an amount of realism to the statues. The realism
is in the way it brings a sway to the hips and body and engages the viewer easier
by this new animation and expression.
Another notable development that begins is the increasing use of bronze
in sculpture. They began to use bronze as an artistic medium because it is stronger
than marble and doesn't need supports for open poses with outstretched arms or
wide stances. These facts helped artists explore more daring poses without as
much fear of damage or breakage. It is from this that sculpture develops “in
the round”, which means that the sculpture wasn't meant to be seen from
just one angle but was able to be seen from all sides. This led to an increase
of action-oriented themes and confident mastery of anatomy. An example of a bronze
sculpture in the conroposto pose is “Zeus” who stands at six feet
and ten inches. The statue of Zeus is poised as if he were about to hurl a lightning
bolt. This statue shows the contrast of stability in the midst of motion, which
are the key components that make this sculpture so grand and powerful.
One of the first celebrated works of the fifth century that we can
define as the classical style is the very famous “Disk Thrower” statue
by Myron. Almost all of the famous classical and Hellenistic statues that survive
today are marble Roman copies from the original bronze sculptures. Myron's Disk-Thrower
(Discobolos) is no exception. It was so famous in ancient Greece and Italy
that many copies were and have been made over the ages. Myron achieved the fame
of this statue by representing a frozen moment in time through the twisting balanced
movement, and in the way he rendered the realism of the anatomy and the thrust
of the figure's weight in an expressive split second of time that has stood for
over two millennia.
Phidias was another major sculptor of the early classical period.
He was responsible for the amazing marble decorations of the Parthenon. His sculptures
also show a realism that had not been seen before. All of the very famous sculptors
at this time enjoyed a degree of celebrity status. Phidias was probably the greatest
sculptor/celebrity. He was helped by the powerful political leader Pericles who
was rebuilding Athens. Pericles
noticed the sculptor's skill and mastery of the medium and made Phidias chief
architect, sculptor, painter and designer of the new buildings being erected on
the Acropolis, among other public
works programs. One of the legendary sculptures by Phidias was his creation of
the colossal statue of Athena made of gold and ivory in the temple, as well as
the novel, celebrated frieze built behind the columns of the Parthenon, 4 feet
high and 523 feet long. The frieze was a vivid illustration of the religious procession
that took place in Athens
to honor the goddess Athena every four years. It stands as one of the greatest
reliefs in the world because of the rhythmic movements and the absence of repeated
stiff forms, so often seen on monumental friezes throughout history.
Another one of the developments that really separates the classical
style from earlier styles is the quality of “Pathos” that the statues
begin to develop. Pathos is the Greek word meaning “suffering” and
becomes a major movement in later Hellenistic styles. An ideal statue depicting
the quality of pathos is the “Dying Niobid” dated 450-440 BC. One
can see the quality of pathos in the body's pose and facial expressions. According
to the legend, Niobid insulted Apollo and Artemis's mother by boasting of her
seven sons and seven daughters. The two gods killed all of the children. The statue
depicts Niobid sinking to her knees after being shot in the back while running.
As she reaches behind to pull the arrow out, her garment has slipped off, leaving
her nude. This statue is the earliest large female in Greek art to be nude. The
self-contained suffering is expressed on her face.
Other sculptors worth mentioning included a late classical or pre-Hellenistic
flavor, such as Scopas who was one of the sculptors at the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
His style is marked by deep set eyes and dramatic sweeping gestures.
Praxiteles was another sculptor who worked on the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
His most famous sculptures are standing gods who achieve a perfection of flesh
and grace that established his fame and reputation throughout the ancient world.
They are relaxed and polished forms that for the first time in Greek sculpture
are wrapped in an atmosphere and feeling that glows from within.
Another sculptor that enjoys lasting fame and respect is Lysippus
who set new proportions for the human body, he changed the style of sculpture
through these new proportions and other sculptors followed his lead. His figures
were more slender and lithe with smaller heads and expressive postures that began
to break from the ordinary contrapposto. His figures also show a new kind of spontaneity.
His most famous sculpture “The scraper” is the statue of a young athlete
with messy hair scraping olive oil from his body as was the practice of cleaning
oneself at this time.
During the Hellenistic era Greek sculptures were spread throughout
vast territories due to the continuing expansion of Greek territories and colonies,
but despite this expansion, Greek sculpture continued to become more Greek. The
tides of culture had turned. Rather than being greatly influenced by other cultures,
the Greeks were influencing other cultures, in the arts and in other ways. A dramatically
different character of sculpture can be noted during this period, more victorious
and stately, reflecting the pride the Greeks had begun to feel in their accomplishments.
This was done by placing a greater emphasis on pathos as well as greater spontaneity
and a greater variety of poses.
The sculptors of this era begin to challenge the set patterns of standing
sculptures and displayed more expressiveness and greater variety. The sculptures
develop a heavier quality. More weight and balance can be felt, especially in
the structure of the Pergamum
altar. From about 180 BC the most impressive part of the Pergamum
altar is the great frieze that confronts the viewer. It is bold. The subject is
the battle of the Gods and the Giants, which was seen as a symbol of the Greeks'
victories in their own wars. The altar however, abandons subtlety and relies instead
on the dramatic muscular bodies and extreme poses that almost break out of their
swirling garments. Even as the figures fall wounded, they threaten to come off
the surface. Done in tremendous dynamic movement the entire design is overwhelming.
Playing through the throes of combat, the pathos on the faces shows the violence
of struggle in battle and in unity with the strain and emotion of the body. Another
battle related sculpture is the “Dying Trumpeter”. (230-220 BC) This
statue was created in order to celebrate the victory of Attalus I of Pergamum
(a city in north-west Asia Minor)
over the Celts. The sculptor must have had some knowledge of the Celts for his
art remarkably depicts their facial characteristics. Also the knotted rope around
the trumpeter's neck is another Celtic symbol. The pathos expression of the mortally
wounded trumpet player is that of silent dignity and pain. The trumpeter earns
the viewers' respect for his acceptance of death, yet his lingering strength can
be detected in the weight of his arms that are his only support.
The Nike of Samothrace
has been called “the greatest masterpiece of Hellenistic sculpture”
because of its feeling of movement. The wind and air whip around and through the
folds in her clothing. You can feel the atmosphere as it ruffles the feathers
of the wings thrown back behind her body as the goddess lands on the prow of a
ship. In all its amazing fantasy and fantastic realism it moves through the space
around it with forceful animated action and advancement.
Another aspect of Hellenistic sculpture are the small scale statuettes
often called “Tanagra figurines” produced in shops for private ownership.
These are an exception to the otherwise mythological themes. Even though they
do include some of them in the beginning, they begin to represent everyday people
and rarely do we find the monumental public sculpture qualities. Instead, most
of the figures simply lean or walk, or sit, and the subjects are just everyday
people, street beggars, entertainers, dancers, fashionable ladies, and gymnasts,
among others.
Before we can leave Hellenistic sculpture we should give some credit
to the Laocoon Group which was found in Rome
in 1506 AD. It has been identified as a Roman copy of a Greek original. It shows
the tragic death of Laocoon and his two sons when they were punished by the gods
for warning the Trojans not to admit the Greeks' wooden horse into their city.
It has been said that the death of Laocoon was the first in a chain of events
leading to the founding of Rome,
and therefore an important myth. It is also an incredibly important piece because
when it was unearthed in Rome,
it influenced many Renaissance artists. Among those was Michelangelo who must
have been impressed by the bulging, straining musculature and the vigorous triad
of the figures. It also seems hard to imagine that he would forget the extreme
sense of pathos on the faces of the figures as they are caught in the serpents'
writhing forms, struggling to the death.
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