Listed 36 sub titles with search on: Archaeological sites for wider area of: "LYGOURIO Small town ASKLIPIIO" .
ASKLEPIEION OF EPIDAURUS (Ancient sanctuary) ARGOLIS
In the picturesque valley with a magical environment, where there were natural and healing sources, the sanctum of Asklepios was built in ancient times. It developed, over the years, to become the famous therapeutic center where many of the patients came from everywhere to the god "Deliverer", as they called him. Symbols of the Asklepios were the snake, the stick and the pot of therapeutic fluid. In the valley, at first, appeared a prehistoric settlement. The king of Epidavros "Malo" built then the first sanctuary in honor of Apollo of Maleata.
According to the local tradition, Asklepios was son of Apollo and Koronidos, daughter of the Thessaly king, Flegia. Askelpios was born at the Tithio rock, where his mother left him because she feared the anger of her father Flegia. So she left the child and a goat found and suckled the baby and the dog from the flock notified the shepherd, who found the infant. Then the first mountain was named Tithio in honor of the goat and the next mountain named "Kinos" in honor of the dog that found him. The influence and the brilliancy of Asklepios as the most important therapeutic god, brought huge economic power to the sanctuary during the 4th and 3rd century b.c, and the large group of buildings in the area materialized. Under the cover of these monumental buildings, the whole worship took place.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from the Municipality of Epidavros URL below, which contains image.
The Sanctuary of Epidavros is one of the most significant religious
and therapeutic centers of Ancient Greece. The sanctuary was dedicated to worshipping
the God, Asklepios, whose adoration brought him from Thessaly
to the city of Epidavros in the 6th century B.C. A hospital was gradually appended
to the sanctuary for the ill in addition to a Spa. Every four years (nine days
following the Isthmia celebration) gymnastics and drama competitions took place
in this area in order to honor Asklepios. Asklepios' splendor lasted throughout,
the course of Ancient Times approximately. It did, however, undergo a second prosperous
phase during the 2nd century B.C. upon, Pausanias' visit, a traveler. The excavations
within the Epidavros area began in 1879 and continue today within various sections
of the area. Until now, the archaeological mattock has discovered a plethora of
structures: the Tholos, the Gymnasium, the Palaestra, the Stadium, the «Katagogeion»
Hotel, the Thermae, and the Temple of Artemis . The structures however, that stand
out within the area are the Temple of Asklepios and the Ancient Epidavros Theatre.
The Doric Temple of Asklepios was built during the period 380 - 375
B.C. by the Architect Theodotus. In its construction, Corinthian poros stone was
utilized, excluding of course the sculptures and the decorated areas as well as
the waterspouts, which are made of marble. A trench tracing the length of the
wall was located on its right side, which was not unusual to the hospitals treating
the ill whilst it was also a significant instrument in the ritual for advice.
Later, they filled it with dirt. The Temple's interior contained an ivory and
gold statue of Asklepios that was the work of artist from Paros, Thrasimides.
In 1988, UNESCO enlisted the monument in its World Heritage List of Monuments.
The Epidavros Theatre was built in the 4th century B.C. by the Architect
and Sculptor, Polikleitos Junior. He is renowned for his exceptional - practically
perfect - acoustics, exhibited by the Theatre. He is also famous for the actors'
dialogues and the Chorus that played in the orchestra. The Orchestra is clearly
heard from the highest Theatre seats above. The Orchestra, along with the Chorus
as was usual in those days, is similar to all other theatres in that it is circular
and was constructed from dirt (a characterizing trait of theatres of the Hellenistic
Period). Also, the Orchestra's basis contained a drainage trench (2 meters in
width) that assisted in collecting rainwater. It is the only theatre in which
the Orchestra has been preserved and is in such excellent condition. The Altar,
however, has not been preserved, which was located in the center of the Orchestra.
The koilon (its right side has been rebuilt) maintains an occupancy rate of 14.000
spectators. The 34 rows of seats, which are located at the lower end of the Theatre,
have not been replaced and were constructed by following their original structure.
On the contrary, the 21 rows located in the upper section of the Theatre were
added later during the Roman years. The Stage was located behind the Orchestra
and exactly opposite the Koilon. This was the area the actors used to change costumes
and is referred to as the Proscenium. Only ruins are evident now. Access to the
Orchestra was available from the two parodoses (on the right and left sides),
which maintained monumental gates that were only recently reconstructed. Today,
the Epidavros Theatre continues to give ancient drama performances, which comprise
the most significant art and cultural events of the summer season.
This text is cited May 2003 from the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs URL below.
Is it one of the most important and beautiful archeological places around Greece. In a green plain, surrounded by friendly mountains, a place of worldwide brilliancy and culture, the Ancient theatre at the side of mountain Kinortiou, the miracle of Epidavros, was built by the architect and sculptor Argous Poliklito the last. It built in two separate stages, the first at the end of the 4th century b.c. and the second in the middle of the 2nd century, when the famous three part characteristic of the Greek Theatre was finalized in Epidavros: concave - orchestra - stage. The highest distance of the concave is 58m while the diameter of the orchestra is about 20m. There are two friezes that separate into 13 stairs and 12 benches at the lower level and into 23 benches and 22 stairs at the upper level.
The theater displays the perfect form of the antique architecture, impressive with its beauty and symmetry. The capacity of the theatre is about 15.000 seats. The systematic excavation was started in 1881 by the archeologist Panagioti Kavvadia. The wonderful acoustics are the attraction of large number of visitors each year. Here, every summer, the Festival of Epidavros is held with famous performances of ancient drama and comedy.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from the Municipality of Epidavros URL below, which contains images.
The
building of the Theater
The famous theater
seems to have been built around the end of 4th century BC, as part of an extensive
building programme. Its architect remains unknown, although Pausanias mistakenly
identifies him with Polykletos, the famous sculptor. This missidentification testifies
to the fact that even since antiquity the theater at Epidaurus was considered
as one of the very best in the ancient world, due to its elegance and beauty.
The theater was originally designed to serve the production of Greek drama as
established in 5th century Athens. It was built probably in two phases, in any
case closely following the initial plan. The edifice was constructed entirely
of two types of stone: grey-pink limestone for the cavea and soft tufa covered
with stucco for the stage building and the retaining walls. The fine acoustics
of the theater is a natural consequence of the accuracy and geometry of its design.
Description
of the Theater
The orchestra (or dancing floor) has the shape of a perfect circle,
with a diameter just above 19,50 meters. A circular base still preserved at its
exact center most probably held an Altar to Dionysos, called Thymele. The orchestra
was the performing ground for the "choros" of the Greek drama.
Symmetrically placed within the circle of the orchestra are the three
geometrical centers of the concave seat wedges forming a triangle with two very
closed and one very wide corner angle pointing to the auditorium. The one exactly
coinciding with the center of the orchestra is also the center of the 8 central
wedges of the lower part, while the two sets of wedges at either side have their
centers located at each distant corner of the triangle, on a line parallel to
the Stage. Being extensions of the seat wedges of the lower part, those at the
upper part follow the same geometry. This choice of geometrical features enables
better visibility, without disturbing the impression of a perfect shape. The lower
part of the auditorium has 34 rows of seats and the upper 21, bringing the total
to 55, with a capacity of about 14000 spectators. As in most hellenic theaters,
the lowest row of seats has the form of a continuous throne, reserved for state
officials, priests, and other important personages. Through a pair of drains at
both ends of the circular corridor between the orchestra and the lowest row of
seats, the rain water running down from the stone cavea was driven into an underground
drainage system and carried away.
The auditorium had a slope of about 26 degrees. Strong lateral retaining
walls held both of its side limits facing outwards to the stage building. A tower
of unknown function crowned their top at either side. The two oblong passages
left between the retaining walls and the stage building at either side formed
the "parodoi" (passageways). Spectators taking their seats at the lower part of
the auditorium would enter the theater through them, and so would the "choros"
during the performance. Two imposing gateways made of stone, with pilasters carrying
an ionic entablature, architecturally linked the stage building to the auditorium.
Each had twin openings, one leading directly to the orchestra ground, the other
onto the stage via a ramp. Metal grills placed within these openings secured the
theater, when not in operation.
In its final phase during the late Hellenistic period the stage building
was a two-storey structure with a single storey projection towards the orchestra.
The stage building consisted of the following parts:
1. The "Proskenion" (fore-stage) This was a single-storey projection towards
the circular orchestra raising to a height of 3.5 meters. Its side facing the
spectators had the form of an elegant colonnade in the ionic order, with gate-like
wings at either end.
2. The free, flat space exactly above the proskenion was called "Theologeion".
There the main "hypocritae" (actors) would act their parts of the drama during
the performance. The theologeion was accesible from both sides via the ramps entered
through the openings at the gateways.
3. Behind the proskenion and the theologeion lay the stage proper, a two-storey
building. Its groundfloor was called the "Skene" (stage) and had four columns
carrying the upper floor called "Episkenion" (over-the-stage). The front side
of the episkenion facing the spectators was open, with four pillars that covered
the span from side to side. The openings between the pillars were blocked with
hanging "pinakes" (backcloth screens) carrying painted settings appropriate for
each play.
Recent
history of the Theater
The theater at Epidaurus was uncovered by the Athenian Archaeological
Society, which excavated the site around the turn of the century. The auditorium
survived the delapidation of all building material suffered by any structure standing
above ground during Middle Ages, due to landslide or gradual silting that covered
it with soil. On the contrary, almost nothing survived of the stage building itself
except scattered architectural members, thankfully enough to allow archaeologists
and architects to reconstruct its form at least on paper. Apart from a summary
report by the archeaologist P. Kavvadias in his general book dedicated to the
results of the excavations at Epidaurus, the theater was thoroughly measured and
studied by Armin von Gerkan and Wolfgang Mueller-Wiener of the German Archaeological
Institute. The results of their studies were published in "Das Theater von Epidauros"
(W.Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1961).
The present state of the theater is the result of extensive restoration
work carried out during the 20th century. Restoration included complete rebuilding
of the collapsed retaining walls, and the gateways as well as reconstruction of
the lateral seat wedges.
Since the beginning of the current decade the Greek Ministry of Culture
has undertaken additional restoration work focusing on the auditorium and the
gateways. At the same time concerted efforts are made to enhance the protection
of the theater against overworning, by regulating the access of visitors and its
use during the summer festivals. After World War II the Greek Tourist Organization
initiated a Summer Festival of Greek Drama, which for years has been a major cultural
event.
Lately the whole site of the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus,
including the theater, was enlisted in the List of International Cultural Heritage
of UNESCO.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from the Foundation of the Hellenic World URL below, which contains images.
Theatrum. As the Greek drama sprang from the choral dances round the altar
of Dionysus, so the architectural form of the Greek theatre was developed from
the circular dancing-place, the orchestra. At first there was no chorus distinct
from the general body of worshippers, all of whom were free to join in the dance.
As soon as a regular Chorus was instituted, it became necessary to reserve a
circular space of ground for it. A ring of stones sufficed to mark off this
circle. The altar of Dionysus was placed at its centre. The spectators stood
around it, and watched the dance. So long as the dramatic element was limited
to a dialogue between the Chorus and one actor, that person could stand on a
raised place in the middle of the Chorus, and address himself to various points
of the circle in turn. But when Aeschylus added a second actor, it became necessary
that the actors should play towards some one side. It was no longer possible
that the spectators should form a complete circle. They were now arranged in
a semicircle, or something like it. But the whole circle of the dancing-place
was still, as of old, kept clear for the Chorus. The actors stood facing the
spectators, not within the circle of the dancing-place, but on the further side
of it. Behind them was the tent or booth (skene) in which they dressed. It was
an easy improvement to conceal this tent from the spectators by a wooden screen,
which could represent the front of a house, or such other background as suited
the play. This screen was the proskenion--that which masked the skene. In the
matured theatre the term was retained, though its primitive sense may have been
forgotten. The proscenium was the background visible to the audience, whether
this was a temporary wooden structure, or, as in later times, a permanent wall.
Then skene came to denote that part of the theatre which belonged to the actors,
as distinguished from orchestra, the place of the Chorus. Thus the kommos, a
lyric dialogue between Chorus and actor, is defined by Aristotle as threnos
chorou kai apo skenes (Poet. 12): and he uses the phrase epi skenes where we
should say, on the stage (ib. 24).
The oldest theatre of which we have any knowledge is the Dionysiac
theatre at Athens. It has generally been supposed that a permanent stone theatre
existed in the Lenaion, or precinct of Dionysus, from the early years of the
5th cent. B.C. This belief rested on a passage in Suidas (s. v. Pratinas). He
states that in the 70th Olympiad (500-496 B.C.) Pratinas was exhibiting tragedy,
in competition with Choerilus and Aeschylus, when the wooden benches (ikria)
on which the spectators were standing happened to fall; and, in consequence
of this (ek touton), a theatre was built. But the history of the Dionysiac theatre
has been placed in a new light by the recent researches of the German Archaeological
Institute at Athens. The excavations, begun in 1886, have yielded the following
results, according to Dr. W. Dorpfeld:
(1) In the 5th cent. B.C., and down to about 330 B.C., the precinct contained
no permanent building for scenic purposes. There were in it two temples of Dionysus
(Fig. 1, D, E, see inside URL below), both to the south of the present theatre.
The older of these (D), which was the more northerly, dated from a time before
Peisistratus. Close to it, on the N.E., was a circular orchestra, about 78 feet
in diameter, of which traces have been found under the buildings erected by
Lycurgus. This orchestra was then the only permanent provision for drama. All
scenery, therefore, was temporary; and the spectators sat on wooden benches.
It is observed that Andocides, in the speech on the Mysteries (399 B.C.), speaks
of the conspirators whom he observed within the precinct of Dionysus as apo
tou odeiou katabainontas eis ten orchestran, not eis to theatron ( § 38): and
the latter word, when used by Aristophanes, always means the spectators.
(2) The first permanent building for drama in the Lenaion was that completed
by Lycurgus, about 330 B.C. It consisted of a stone wall with two small wings,
like towers, projecting from it on right and left (A, A); the length of the
wall between them was about 65 ft. 7 in. The temporary decorations (of wood,
with linen hangings) were erected in front of this wall, and supported by the
wings. Behind the wall was an oblong room, extending somewhat beyond the wings,
and serving for the use of the actors. A portico (C, C), opening on the precinct
of Dionysus, ran along the south side of it. The new orchestra was to the north
of this building. Dr. Dorpfeld supposes that it formed, like, the older one,
a complete circle, and that there was no raised stage; the actors stood on the
same level with the Chorus. Rows of stone seats for the spectators were now
constructed. After the time of Lycurgus no change, except of detail, took place
in the auditorium.
(3) At some later date, which cannot be fixed, a permanent stone proscenium
(B), adorned with columns, and about 10 or 12 ft. high, was built in front of
the wall with projecting wings which Lycurgus had erected. As the wings no longer
served a practical purpose (in supporting the temporary scenery), they were
annexed to the new proscenium, a part being cut off the front of each, so as
to bring them more nearly into line with it.
(4) An architrave-inscription found in the theatre shows that it was modified
and embellished in the reign of Claudius, by whom Nero seems to be meant. It
was probably at this time that the orchestra received its present pavement of
Pentelic and Hymettos marble; the significance of the diamond-shaped figure
traced in the centre is uncertain. To this period also is referred the erection
of a raised stage, supported in front by a sculptured wall.
(5) The latest recorded changes in the Dionysiac theatre are associated with
the name of a certain Phaedrus, and took place probably in the 3rd cent. To
these belong the existing front wall of the stage, adorned with sculpture of
an earlier period; also the balustrade which now separates the auditorium from
the orchestra, and the partial covering of the orchestra-canal with marble flags.
It is maintained by Dr. Dorpfeld that, not only in the Dionysiac
theatre, but in all theatres of the Greek type, the actors stood on the same
level with the Chorus; a stage raised above the orchestra was a Roman invention;
and where such a stage occurs in a theatre of Greek origin, it is a later addition,
made under Roman influence. The Roman raised stage, he thinks, was developed,
when a Chorus was no longer used, by depressing the level of the circular orchestra
in that part of it--the part furthest from the actors--where the Chorus formerly
stood. This startling theory is based chiefly on the nature of the proscenium
as it appears in the remains of some Greek theatres. The theatre of
Epidaurus (Fig. 2, see inside URL below), built about the middle of
the 4th century B.C., is the best-preserved example of the Greek type;
excavations have lately been made in it by the Greek Archaeological Society
(1883).
The orchestra forms a complete circle, defined by a ring of flat
stones. Beyond this circle, on the side furthest from the audience, are remains
of a wall, about 12 ft. high, adorned with Ionic half-columns, and flanked by
slightly projecting wings; there was one door in it, at the middle point. This
wall must have been either the background of the scene, or the front of a raised
stage. It is argued that it must have been the background, because (a) 12 ft.
would be too great a height for a stage; (b) the width of the stage--about 8
ft.--would have been too small; (c) there is no trace of steps leading from
the top of the wall to the orchestra. A similar wall occurs in the theatre at
Oropus, and is identified as the proskenion by an inscription which it bears.
The theatre in the Peiraeus affords another example.
On the other hand, several considerations tell in favour of the
received view, that Greek actors, at every period, had a raised stage.
(1) The statements of the architect Vitruvius, who wrote about 20 A.D., is decisive,
so far as the Roman period is concerned. He states that the Greek theatre had
a raised stage, about 10 or 12 ft. high, but narrower than the Roman; the Greeks,
he says, called logeion. Vitruvius uses the-word proscaenium to describe this
stage; and the same use of the term occurs in other writers, both Roman and
Greek. Dr. Dorpfeld is therefore reduced to assuming that Vitruvius has made
a mistake, confusing the background of the scene in a Greek theatre with the
front of a raised stage. But it is absurd to suppose that Vitruvius should have
made such a blunder about the Greek theatres of his own day; and that, having
accurately described a raised stage which did not exist, he should also have
invented a name for it, logeion.
(2) The theatre at Megalopolis in Arcadia has been excavated by members of the
British School at Athens (see an account by Mr. W. Loring in the Report of the
School for 1890). The date of the theatre may be placed in the second half of
the 4th century B.C. Here there is a raised stage, of which the height was originally
about 6 ft., and the width about 18 ft. A flight, of steps, extending from end
to end of it, led down to the orchestra. That it was a stage, and not a background,
is proved (a) by these steps, (b) by the fact, that access was given to it by
three doors in the wall behind it. There is no reason to doubt that this stage
is of the same date as the auditorium. A later Roman stage has been found in
front of it. By this example, then, the existence of a raised, stage in a Greek
theatre of the 4th century B.C. is placed beyond doubt.
(3) With regard to the 5th century B.C., it was not to be expected that any
remains of a raised stage should be found; temporary wooden structures would
leave no trace. The Greek plays do not supply any literary evidence which can
be deemed conclusive. There are some passages which indicate that the place
where the actors stood was accessible to the Chorus (e. g. Soph. Oed. Col. 836
ff.); -as would be the case, if we supposed a stage with steps leading up to
it, as at Megalopolis. Among the passages which seem to imply a raised stage,
we may notice Ar. Vesp. 1514, where Philocleon says, atar katabateon g' ep'
autous. This may, indeed, be rendered, I must enter the lists against them;
but it also implies some change of position, more marked than such as would
consist in moving merely from one spot in the orchestra to another, and would
be most naturally explained by a descent into the orchestra from the stage.
Some vases of Lower Italy, referable to the period 300-100 B.C., depict scenes
from the Old Attic Comedy acted on a raised logeion. Plato (Symp. p. 194 A)
speaks of the tragic poet Agathon as anabainontos epi okribanta meta ton hupokriton.
This probably refers, not to a performance in the theatre, but to the proagon.
Still, it shows that the idea of placing actors on a raised platform was familiar
to Athenians of the 5th century B.C. Even in the days before Thespis, when one
member of the Chorus held a dialogue with the rest, he was mounted, we are told,
on a kind of table (eleos: Pollux, iv. 123). A recent writer suggests that the
source of this story may have been a Comedy in which the beginnings of Tragedy
were burlesqued (Hiller, Rhein. Museum). If this were so, it would only show
that some sort of raised stage was conceived as necessary for even the most
primitive form of drama.
Lastly, there is a strong a priori objection to the theory that
actors and Chorus stood on the same level. The Chorus were usually drawn up
in ranks facing the actors. With his cothurnus and mask, a tragic actor would
still not overtop the Chorus by more than a head. Hence, a view of the actors
would have almost been wholly denied to spectators whose seats were in the middle
part of the lowest row. But those were the seats assigned to the most distinguished
persons. This argument cannot be met by saying, as Dr. Dorpfeld does, that the
Chorus was usually divided into hemichoria (leaving the actors visible between
the two groups). Such an arrangement was not usual, but very exceptional. It
may be allowed that, when the stage came to be as high as 12 ft., permanent
means of communication between stage and orchestra cannot have existed, though
temporary wooden steps might be employed at need. But before stages of that
height came into use, such communication had ceased to be requisite, since the
Chorus had no longer an active part in drama.
Vitruvius gives the ground-plan of a Greek theatre as follows. Describe a circle
for the orchestra, and in it inscribe three squares. One side of one of these
squares will represent the front line of the stage (A B). A parallel tangent
to the circle will be the back wall of the stage (C D). The stage (pulpitum,
logeion) must be not less than 10, or more than 12 feet high. Next, parallel
with A B, draw a diameter of the circle, E F. It will be seen in the diagram
that at E and F the semicircle is so continued as to make a horse-shoe, ending
at G H. The curves which thus continue it are segments of circles described
from E and F as respective centres, with E F as radius. This is known as the
construction from three centres, viz., E, F, and the centre of the orchestra.
The auditorium is shut in by lines which bisect the right angles at I and K.
The space between G H and C D is a raised stage.
The 4th century B.C. was the period at which stone theatres became
usual in Greece. We may now proceed to consider their characteristics more in
detail.
The orchestra.
It has been seen that, even in the matured theatre, the dancing-place
was still a complete circle, as in the old days of the cyclic choruses. Its
central point was sometimes marked, either by a small pit (as at the Peiraeus),
or by a stone (as at Epidaurus). Such marks probably indicate the spot on which
the altar of Dionysus was to be placed. The word thumele, a place of sacrifice,
means in classical poetry either a shrine, or, more specifically, an altar.
Lexicographers and scholiasts often mention a thumele in connexion with the
theatre; but they do not agree as to what it was, nor do they furnish any certain
clue. The most probable conclusion is that the thumele was the altar of Dionysus,
in the centre of the orchestra. Another view is that the name thumele was transferred
from the altar to a platform in the orchestra on which the altar was placed,
and that this platform was the station of the Chorus,--connected by steps with
the lower level of the orchestra (konistra) and with the higher level of the
stage (logeion). It is true that the use of thumele to denote a kind of stage
was current in later times, when thymelici, music-hall artists, were distinguished
from actors proper (Isidore, Orig. xviii. 47). But this use arose under Roman
influences, and cannot be assumed for the Greece of the 5th or 4th century B.C.
A channel, to carry off rain-water, often surrounded the orchestra, being bridged
by stones at the points from which the stairways led up to the seats.
The Auditorium.
In default of a special term like cavea, this is sometimes called
theatron: though that word, when it does not mean the whole building, more often
denotes the spectators (as we speak of the house ). In the older Greek theatres
the public entered by the side-passages (parodoi) between the proscenium and
the orchestra,--the same which the Chorus used. Sometimes, indeed, we find an
alternative mode of access, viz. by a path traversing high ground, and leading
directly to one of the upper tiers: this was the case at Athens, but it was
exceptional. A crowd entering by the parodoi would find the pressure greatest
at the mouths of the semicircular passage between the orchestra and the lowest
row of seats,--before the spectators had distributed themselves to the several
parts of the house. This fact helps to explain a peculiarity of construction.
The lowest row of seats is not, as a rule, completely concentric with the orchestra,
but is usually so contrived as to leave a wider space at the points just mentioned.
A further advantage of this arrangement was that it afforded a better view to
those who sat at each end of the semicircle.
Flights of steps ascending from the orchestra to the highest tier
of seats divided the auditorium into wedge-like segments. The Greek word for
such a segment was kerkis, which properly meant radius; the Latin term was cuneus.
A further division into upper and lower zones was effected by passages called
diazomata, girdles (praecinctiones), which ran completely round the semicircle.
At Epidaurus there is only one diazoma, which is not half-way between the lowest
and highest tier, but nearer to the latter; and, while the lower zone (between
the diazoma and the orchestra) is divided into only twelve kerkides, the upper
contains twenty-two. At Athens only one diazoma can now be traced, but there
may have been another: the number of kerkides is thirteen. The word diazoma
can denote, not only the passage itself, but the zone which it marks off: thus
the eleventh row in the upper zone is expressed by to hendekaton tou deuterou
diazomatos bathron. zone is also used in that sense. Above the highest tier,
another open passage ran round the house. The term ikria properly denoted the
wooden benches on which, in the earlier times, the spectators sat (cf. Ar. Ach.
24 f.: ostiountai . . . peri protou xulou). When stone seats were introduced,--which
at Athens does not appear to have occurred before the time of Lycurgus (c. 330
B.C.),--such seats were founded, where it was possible, on the natural rock
of the slope. At Athens, as at Megalopolis, artificial substructions were required
in several parts, and this must almost everywhere have been the case, more or
less. The material used for the seats varied much. Sometimes it is marble, as
at Iassus in Caria and Perga in Pamphylia; at Athens and in the Peiraeus, it
is (for the ordinary seats) a white limestone, finely wrought; while the smaller
provincial theatres were often content with coarser stone and workmanship. The
tiers of seats were called bathra or anabathmoi. At Athens the space allotted
to one person was indicated merely by a line engraved on the stone (as at Sparta
by a groove): it is described as hedra, topos, chora, chorion, or simply thea
(thean agorazein, katalambanein).
The privilege of proedria in the theatre was given chiefly to four
classes of persons: (1) certain priests and priestesses, among whom the priest
of Dionysus was foremost: (2) certain magistrates: (3) foreigners who were honoured
in an official character, as presbeis or theoroi: (4) citizens or foreigners
who were honoured in their personal capacity, as benefactors of the state. For
such persons special seats were provided, like armchairs, called thronoi or
kathedrai. At Athens these chairs, made of Pentelic marble, occupy the whole
of the lowest row, while others are placed in different parts of the house,
though in no case higher up than the twenty-fourth row; those assigned to priests
or officials bear their titles; thus the central chair of the semicircle is
inscribed, "Iereos Dionysou Eleuthereos". According, to one recent
view, the chairs in the lowest row date from the time of Lycurgus; it has more
generally been supposed that all these chairs are of the Roman age,--as all
the present inscriptions certainly are. At Epidaurus several rows of seats with
backs and arms were assigned to those who enjoyed proedria. Elaborate ornament
was often applied to such chairs,--the feet being shaped like lion's claws,--the
front or back carved with mythical subjects in relief, etc.
The acoustic properties of a Greek theatre would be naturally good,
since the actors had a high wall behind them and a rising slope in front. Vitruvius,
indeed, says that artificial aid was sought from brazen vessels, which the Greeks
call echeia, so placed in the auditorium as to reverberate the voices of the
actors. He even speaks of these resonators as being nicely adapted to the required
musical pitch (ii. 1, 9). The theatre at Aizani in Cilicia has a series of niches
above the diazoma: and similar niches exist elsewhere. According to one view,
these niches held the echeia, while another connects them merely with the substructions
of seats. The statement of Vitruvius leaves no doubt that echeia were used,
at least sometimes, in the theatres of his own day: but it remains uncertain
whether such a device was employed by the Greeks of an earlier time.
The outer wall enclosing the auditorium ordinarily followed the
curve of the semicircle, unless the nature of the ground caused some deviation.
At Athens the auditorium was partly bounded on the N. by the steep rock of the
Acropolis, while the rest of its boundary was formed by strong walls of conglomerate.
Where the external appearance of these walls became important, viz. in the S.
and S.W. portions, they were cased with finely-wrought limestone. The general
outline at Athens was that of a large segment of a circle, described from a
centre considerably N. of the point which served as centre of the orchestra:
for a small distance at the S.W. corner the curve passed into a straight line.
Examples also occur in which the walls enclosing the auditorium were rectangular,
as at Cnidus, and in the smaller theatre at Pompeii. The walls flanking the
seats at each end of the semicircle were either carried in a single sloping
line from the topmost tier to the orchestra, or built in a series of steps corresponding
with the tiers. In the best Greek period such walls were not exactly parallel
with the line of the proscenium, but started inwards a little, towards the centre
of the orchestra. This was the case at Athens and at Epidaurus.
Scenic Decoration.
The testimonies on this subject are of two classes.
(1) Notices in writers chiefly belonging to the Roman age, especially lexicographers
and scholiasts. Among these the most important is the grammarian Julius Pollux
(flor. 170 A.D.), in his Onomasticon, book iv., sections 128-132 (peri hupokriton
skeues). As has lately been shown by Rohde, the source principally used by Pollux
was a work by Juba, a writer of the later Alexandrian age, entitled Theatrike
historia, in at least seventeen books; while Juba, in his turn, had sources
going back to Aristophanes of Byzantium (200 B.C.), but not further. The besetting
fault of Pollux, in abridging from this ample material, seems to have been an
omission to distinguish between the normal and the occasional resources of the
stage.
(2) The second kind of evidence is that derived from the Greek dramatic texts
themselves. This source, scanty as it is, is the principal one on which we have
to rely in regard to the practice of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. Not long
ago it was the custom to treat the notices. in Pollux and the other late authorities
as if they could be applied without reserve to the great age of Athenian Tragedy
and Comedy. A more critical study has shown the. need of greater caution in
this respect. It is not difficult to suppose that, when dramatic poetry had;
culminated, the art of scenic decoration may still have been very rude, while
it is probable that much of the apparatus described by late writers had its
origin under the Diadochi or the Empire. The history of our own stage could
show a similar, course, from the triumphs of poetry to those of mechanism.
In the extant plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes,
the action most often takes place in front of a house, with a practicable door;
sometimes in front of a temple, a cottage, a tent, a cave, or a rock. Painted
linen hangings, erected on a wooden frame, would have sufficed for such a background.
Aristotle, in sketching the growth of Tragedy, says that Aeschylus added the
second actor, and made the dialogue predominate over the choral part, while
Sophocles introduced the third, actor and the use of scenen-painting (skenographia).
Now, this last fact must have stood out clearly in Athenian tradition, which
Aristotle had every means of knowing, when he thus coupled it with the other
novelty as an invention distinctive of Sophocles. It is usually assumed, even
by recent writers, that Aristotle is here irreconcilable with Vitruvius, who
ascribes the introduction of scene-painting to Aeschylus. Such an assumption
is not, we think, necessary. The words of Vitruvius (vii. praef. 11) are: primum
Agatharchus Athenis, Aeschylo docente tragoediam, scaenam fecit et de ea commentarium
reliquit: and he then goes on to say how the stimulus given by Agatharchus.
led Democritus and Anaxagoras to develop principles of perspective. The phrase,
while Aeschylus was exhibiting tragedy, merely describes Aeschylus as contemporary
with the innovation. Sophocles first exhibited in 468 B.C., twelve years before,
the death, of Aeschylus. Aristotle and Vitruvius are reconciled if we suppose
that Sophocles introduced skenographia the early days of his career; a fact
which will also help us to understand why that improvement was peculiarly associated
with this name. Even before Agatharchus had made a beginning of artistic skenographia,
some ruder kind of drawing may have been used. Thus in the Persae of Aeschylus
(472 B.C.) the palace was probably indicated. In the Ion of Euripides (circ.
421 B.C.), where the scene is laid at Delphi, the Chorus of Athenian maidens
point with admiration to the sculptures which adorn the front of the temple.
We may suppose that some, representation of these, though not perhaps a very
elaborate one, appeared on the proscenium.
With regard to massive decoration, as distinguished from a painted
background, the objects required by the texts are simple, such as altars, statues
of gods or, heroes, rocks, and seats. But the texts further prove that certain
mechanical appliances were available at need.
(1) The ekkuklema was a small movable stage on wheels, which could be rolled
forward through the door in the proscenium. There was room on it for three or
four persons, and it was low enough to allow of an actor stepping off it with
ease. The most frequent use of the ekkuklema was when the corpse of a person
slain within the house was to be shown to the audience,--sometimes with the
murderer standing beside it. The moment at which the ekkuklema was pushed forward
is often, though not always, marked in the text by a reference to the opening
of the door.
Examples are:--in Aesch. Ag., Clytaemnestra is thus shown standing by the corpses
of Agamemnon and Cassandra; in Cho., Orestes with the corpses of Aegisth us
and Clytaemnestra: in Soph. El., Orestes and Pylades with the corpse of Clytaemnestra;
in Ant., the corpse of Eurydice: in Eur. Here. Furens, Heracles with the corpses
of his wife and children; in Hippol., the corpse of Phaedra.
But this was not the only case in which the appliance was used:
it could also be employed for any tableau in the interior of a house. Thus in
Aesch. Eum. the Pythia speaks. the prologue in front of the temple, and then
the ekkuklema is used to show Orestes at the omphalos within. Similarly in Soph.
Ai., when Tecmessa opens the tent, this machine serves to display Ajax prostrate
amid the slaughtered cattle. As appears from some passages, the ekkuklema could
be pushed far enough forward to admit of an actor entering, or making his exit,
at the door behind it. It should be noted that the use of the ekkuklema is not
merely an inference from later writers and from hints in Tragedy, but is proved
by the two parodies in Aristophanes, where Euripides and Agathon are wheeled
out, and are then once more withdrawn fiom view (Ach. 408 ff., ekkuklethet'
. . . ekkuklesomai: Thesm. 265,eskuklesato). The exact nature of the exostra
is uncertain, but it was evidently akin to the ekkuklema, differing from it,
possibly, only in the mode of propulsion.
(2) Machinery for showing persons in the air was required by the appearances
of the gods, and in some other cases, -as when Medea is, seen above the palace
in the chariot given to her by the Sun (Eur. Med. 1319), or when Trygaeus soars
aloft on his beetle (Aristoph. Pax, 80). Two different contrivances seem to
have been used: both were, of course, concealed by the proscenium. One was an
apparatus worked by a wheel (trochos) and ropes. (aiorai), and called aiorema,
-which was used when the person was to be seen gradually rising into the air,
or descending from above. As Trygaeus rises into the air, he begs the operator
to be carefult: o mechanopoie, proseche ton noun hos emhe (Aristoph. Pax, 174).
So in fragment 3 of the Daedalus the machinist is thus directed, ho mechanopoios,
hopote boulei ton trochon i elan anekas, lege, chaire, phengos heliou. The other
device was a sort of platform, projecting from the wings at the back of the
proscenium, close to its upper edge. This was the so-called theologeion, used
when the apparition of a god or hero was to be sudden, as it is in Soph. Phil.,
and in Eur. I. T., Helen., Suppl. The kremathra in which Socrates is suspended
(Aristoph. Nub. 218) is a burlesque of the tragic appliances.
(3) Akin to the theologeion must have been the contrivance used when a person
is to appear on the roof of a palace (as the watcher in Aesch. Ag.: Antigone
and the paedagogus in Eur. Phoen., etc.). A wooden platform, high up behind
the proscenium, would have sufficed: according to Pollux, it was called a distegia.
These seem to be the only forms of decoration or mechanism which
can certainly be inferred from the texts of the tragedians and of Aristophanes.
They are all compatible with a temporary wooden structure, and with a comparatively
simple phase of scenic art. When, in the course of the 4th century B.C., permanent
stone theatres became usual in Greek lands, the general character of scenic
decoration was perhaps not at first affected thereby. Behind the proscenium
there was now a permanent wall, forming the front of the building assigned to
the actors. But the proscenium itself probably continued, for a time, to be
temporary,--a wooden structure, with painted hangings. In the Dionysiac theatre,
as Lycurgus left it, two small tower-like wings project from each end of the
permanent back wall. These, it is conjectured, were designed to facilitate the
erection of the wooden proscenium.
It may have been at this period that periaktoi were first introduced.
These were triangular wooden prisms, revolving on a pivot (whence the name),
with scenery painted on each of their three faces. One periaktos was placed
at the left wing, and another at the right. They took the place of modern side-scenes,
and also served to indicate changes of scene, according to a regular conventional
method. The periaktos on the spectator's right hand represented the locality
in which the action was taking place. The periaktos on his left hand represented
a region outside of that locality. If, for instance, the scene of the play was
laid at Delphi, the Tight-hand periaktos would illustrate that place, while
the other might represent the road leading to Athens. The same rule governed
entrances and exits: a Delphian would come on from the right, a stranger from
the left. If the scene was to be changed from one spot near Delphi to another
in the same vicinity, the lefthand periaktos would be turned so as to present
a new face, but the right-hand one would be left unaltered. If the scene was
shifted from Delphi to Athens, both periaktoi would be turned. The first case
was technically a change of topos: the second, of chora.
There are only two Greek plays in which it is necessary to assume
a chance of scene. In the Eumenides the action is transferred from Delphi to
Athens: in the Ajax, from the front of the hero's tent to a lonely place on
the sea-shore. It is probable that, in the first of these examples, the change
was merely symbolised, by substituting the bretas of Athena for a statue of
Apollo; while the building painted on the background was identified, first with
the Delphian temple, and then with the Erechtheum. In the second example, if
the background was a landscape, nothing was required, but to remove the hangings
which represented the tent. The use of periaktoi in the 5th century B.C. cannot
be proved from the dramatic literature. On the other hand, they would have been
found peculiarly convenient when the old wooden proscenia, with painted hangings,
were replaced by stone proscenia adorned with sculpture. At Epidaurus there
is such a proscenium, with Ionic half-columns, which is probably of a later
date than the rest of the building; and the small wings which slightly project
from it at each end may have served, according to a probable conjecture, for
the reception of periaktoi. In the Dionysiac theatre a permanent proscenium
was similarly introduced, after the time of Lycurgus. The projecting towers
of his scene-building (noticed above) then became wings of the new structure,
like those at Epidaurus. There is no evidence that, in addition to revolving
scenery, the Greek theatre had scenes which could be shifted on grooves; though
the Roman stage, as Servius tells us, had both (scaena versilis--scaena ductilis:
on Georg. iii. 24).
Entrances for the actors.
Pollux speaks of three doors in the proscenium, the central one
being called thura basileios, because the chief persons of the play used it.
Vitruvius confirms this statement. Ruins of the Hellenistic or Roman age show
sometimes three doors, sometimes five. In the latter case, the two extreme doors
may have opened, not on the stage, but on spaces at either side of it (paraskenia),
used by actors waiting for their turns, or by officials. In the theatre at Megalopolis
(4th cent. B.C.) there were three entrances to the stage. Only one entrance
is traceable in the remains at Epidaurus, Zea, and Oropus respectively. It is
on a level with the orchestra; hence those who disbelieve in a raised stage
regard it as the entrance for the actors. But it may have passed beneath a raised
stage, serving to give the employes of the theatre a direct access to the orchestra.
How many doors there may have been in the painted hangings of the old wooden
proscenia, we cannot tell. The 5th century texts show that, besides the door
or doors in the proscenium, there were also entrances for the actors from the
sides, right and left.
Pollux says that when ghosts appeared on the scene they came up
either by anapiesmata (our trap-doors ), or by the charonioi klimakes. It has
generally been supposed that these klimakes led from the orchestra to the stage.
This is the case at Megalopolis, where the steps extend along the whole front
of the logeion. Another theory is that they connected the stage with a passage
beneath it, invisible to the spectators.
No curtain was used in the Greek theatre. When a play opened with
a group in position (such as the suppliants in the Oed. Tyr.), the actors must
have simply walked on to the scene, and assumed that position. When one play
followed another, and the background had to be changed, that change took place
before the eyes of the spectators. In such matters we cannot judge the feelings
of Athenians, assembled at the Dionysia, by the requirements of modern playgoers.
At Athens dramatic idealism went hand in hand with scenic simplicity.
The Administration of the Theatre.
A Greek theatre was the property of the state, and the performances
in it were acts of public worship, under state control. At Athens, in the 5th
and 4th centuries B.C., drama accompanied two Dionysiac festivals,--the Lenaea,
in January, and the Great Dionysia, in March. (We are not here concerned with
the Rural Dionysia, in December,--at which, during this period, no new pieces
seem to have been acted.) At each festival, both Tragedy and Comedy were produced;
but the Lenaea was peculiarly associated with Comedy, and the Great Dionysia
with Tragedy. There was a period, indeed, of some fifty years, dating from the
first institution of the Great Dionysia (circ. 478 B.C.), during which Comedy
alone appears to have been produced at the Lenaea. The cost of the
performances at each festival was defrayed from three sources.
(1) The theatre was let by the state to a lessee, who received the money paid
for admission, and in return undertook certain charges. One of these, as appears
from an extant document, was the maintenance of the building in good repair.
Hence the classical name for the lessee, architekton (Dem. de Cor. 28): later
writers call him theatrones (Theophrastus), or theatropoles (Pollux). He was
also bound to provide a certain number of free seats (as for the persons entitled
to proedria): but for these he was probably reimbursed by the Treasury. The
provision of scenery, and of costume for the actors (excepting the choreutae),
appears also to have devolved upon the lessee. He was certainly charged with
the custody of the scenery and of all the theatrical dresses and properties.
He also paid the cashiers, the persons who showed spectators to their places,
and all other employes of the theatre.
(2) The second source of contribution was the choregia. For each festival the
Archon Eponymus appointed as many choregi as there were competing poets; at
the Great Dionysia the number was usually three for Tragedy and three for Comedy.
The choregi were chosen from men nominated by the ten Attic tribes in rotation.
The duty of the choregus was to furnish one chorus of fifteen persons for Tragedy,
or of twenty-four for Comedy. He provided a suitable place for their training
(choregeion), and maintained them till the festival was over. If the poet did
not train them himself, the choregus had to find a chorodidaskalos. He had also
to supply the flute-player (auletes) who preceded the Chorus on entering or
quitting the orchestra, and played the occasional music. He purchased the costumes,
masks, etc., for the Chorus. But his task was not finished when the Chorus was
trained and equipped. He had also to supply any mute persons (kopha prosopa)
that might be required for the piece.
(3) The third contributor was the state. When a poet had applied to the Archon
for a Chorus, and his application had been granted, the Archon next assigned
to him three actors, who were paid by the state. It did not rest with the poet
to decide which of these three should be protagonistes, etc.: he received them
from the state already classified according to merit, as actors of first, second,
and third parts. This classification rested ultimately on special agones in
which actors were directly tried against each other, and which were distinct
from the performances at the festivals. If a poet ever required a fourth actor
(probably a very rare case), he could only go to the choregus, who might make
an extra grant (parachoregema). The state also paid the marshals (rhabdouchoi)
who kept order in the theatre, and who were stationed in the orchestra. Lastly,
a certain honorarium (distinct from the festival-prizes) was paid by the Treasury
to each of the competing poets, according to the order in which they were placed
by the judges.
The character of the dramatic contests as solemnities conducted
by the state was strongly marked in the forms of procedure. A few days. before
the Great Dionysia, the ceremony called the proagon ( prelude ) was held in
the old Odeion near the Enneacrunos. The competing poets, with their respective
choregi, were then formally presented to the public; the actors and choruses
were also present, in festal, but not in scenic, attire; and the titles of the
plays to be produced at the approaching festival were officially announced.
When the first day of the Great Dionysia arrived, the dramatic contests were
preceded by the transaction of some public business in the theatre. It was then
that crowns of honour were awarded for public services, and that the orphans
of Athenians slain in war were presented to the citizens. In due course a public
herald summoned the first on the list of competing poets. He entered the orchestra,
attended by his choregus and chorus) and poured a libation at the thymele to
Dionysus. His procession then withdrew; the orchestra was once more empty (until
the Chorus should make its dramatic entrance); and the play began. One prize
for Tragedy and one for Comedy were awarded by ten judges, taken by lot from
a large number of persons whom the senate (with the choregi) had chosen from
the tribes. At the close of the contests, five judges (taken from the ten by
a second ballot) announced the awards. The successful poets were then crowned,
before the audience, by the archon. Shortly after the festival, a public meeting,
for business connected with it, was held in the theatre. Any complaints of misconduct
which might have arisen were then heard; and officials who had distinguished
themselves received public commendation.
The Audience.
According to a recent estimate, the Dionysiac theatre was once
capable of seating about 27,500 persons. It must be remembered that all the
upper tiers have been destroyed, and that the ancient capacity was enormously
greater than it would appear from the seats which still exist. Plato was using
round numbers when he spoke of more than 30,000 Greeks as present in the Dionysiac
theatre at the tragic contests (Symp. 175 E), but it is quite conceivable that
the number was sometimes nearer to 30,000 than to 20,000. The vast theatre at
Megalopolis could hold, according to one modern computation, no fewer than 44,000
persons. Such numbers become intelligible when we consider that the Greek drama
was essentially a popular festival, in which the entire civic body was invited
to take part. Even young boys were present, both at Comedy and at Tragedy. Women
were certainly present at Tragedy; and a fragment of Alexis shows that, in the
4th cent. B.C., they were admitted to the performances of Comedy also. This,
however, was the Middle Comedy -very different, in some respects, from the Old
Comedy of Aristophanes. It would be a natural inference from the seclusion in
which Athenian women lived that they were not admitted to the Old Comedy. But
against this a priori argument may be set another,--viz. that, at the Dionysia,
Tragedy and Comedy were merely different sides of one agon: those who could
participate in one were entitled to share in the other. A line drawn on grounds
of decorum would dissever elements which, in the Dionysiac idea, were inseparable.
There is no conclusive literary evidence. But one passage in Aristophanes (Pax
964 ff.) cannot be naturally explained except on the supposition that women
were present. Another passage in the same play (Pax 50 ff.) speaks, it is true,
of males only: but that is, obviously, because the speaker, a slave, is describing
his despotes to actual, or future, despotai. At Athens the metoikoi were admitted
to the theatre. (Their exclusion fiom the Lenaea is not proved by Aristoph.
Ach. 507 f., even if v. 508 be sound.) Foreigners were also admitted, whether
officials or private persons.
In the earliest days of Athenian drama, admission was doubtless
free of charge; payment may have been introduced after the expulsion of the
Peisistratidae, when the city began to find the cost too heavy. In the 5th and
4th centuries B.C. the price of admission for one day was two obols, or not
quite 4d. Pericles introduced the system by which the state paid two obols to
each citizen for each day of the Dionysiac festivals, in order that he might
attend the theatre. This theorikon was partly defrayed from the tribute of the
allies, and probably began about 454 B.C. It was distributed by the demarchs
in the several demes; and, though it was first devised in the interests of the
poor, the only condition of obtaining it seems to have been inscription on the
lexiarchikon grammateion of the deme. The number of persons receiving the theorikon
in 431 B.C. has been computed at 18,000. In its later and wider form (as extended
to non-dramatic festivals) the theorikon became an abuse: in its original form
it was substantially a state-grant in aid of education. All seats were of the
same class, except those reserved for persons who had the right of proedria,
and who paid nothing. (Cf. Dem. de Cor. 28.) The places of payment were probably
in the parodoi leading to the orchestra. Specimens of ordinary Greek theatre--tickets
are extant. These are small leaden coins, bearing on one side some emblem of
the theatre, such as a Dionysus with a tripod, or an actor's mask; and on the
obverse, the name of an Attic tribe, or a numeral... Another kind of theatre-ticket
also occurs. This is a small round mark of bone or ivory, bearing on one side
some artistic device (such as the head of a deity), and on the other a number
(never higher than 15), in both Greek and Roman figures. These were tickets,
of the Imperial age, for persons who had proedria. The numbers probably indicate
divisions of the house.. How far such division was carried is uncertain. It
is a probable conjecture that at Athens a certain portion of the house (perhaps
a whole segment, kerkis) was allotted to each of the Attic phulai. This is confirmed
by the occurrence of tribal names on the leaden tickets noticed above; also
by the fact that the choregia was organised on a basis of tribes; and, lastly,
by the analogy of Roman colonies in which certain cunei of the theatre were
assigned to certain curiae. The members of the senate sat together in a definite
part of the Dionysiac theatre (to bouleutikon, Aristoph. Av. 794). For youths
between the ages of 18 and 21, a space was similarly reserved (to ephebikon).
The performances began in the morning, and lasted till evening;
but it is attested by the comic poet Pherecrates -who gained his first prize
in 438 B.C.- that the spectators had usually taken the morning meal (ariston)
before they came (Athen. x. 464 e). In the next century, however, we hear of
performances beginning at daybreak (Aeschin. in Ctes.76). The older Athenian
custom was for all the spectators to wear wreaths (as at a sacrifice); but this
had perhaps gone out before 350 B.C. As the whole day was spent in the theatre,
the visitors brought light refreshments (tragemata) with them. Choregi sometimes
courted popularity by a distribution of cakes and wine: and Aristophanes has
pilloried those rival poets who employed slaves to throw nuts about the house.
An Athenian audience was closely attentive,--detecting the slightest fault of
speech,--and highly demonstrative. Loud clapping of hands, and shouts of applause,
expressed their delight; disapproval found vent in stamping with the feet, hissing,
and hooting (klozein). Never, probably, has the ordeal for an actor been more
severe than it was at Athens. Persons of note who entered the house were recognised
with frank favour, or the reverse. Indeed, the whole demeanour of Athenians
at the Dionysia appears to have been marked by a certain sense of domestic ease,
as if all the holiday-makers were members of one family.
From the latter part of the 4th century B.C. onwards, it became
usual to produce drama, not merely at the Dionysia, but on any occasion of special
rejoicing; a result partly due to the personal taste of Alexander the Great
for theatrical shows of every kind. Hence the theatres gradually lost that sacred
character which had been theirs so long as they were set apart for the worship
of Dionysus. A further consequence was that they began to be used for various
entertainments which had nothing to do with drama, such as the exhibitions of
conjurers or acrobats, and, in the Roman age. gladiatorial shows, or combats
with wild beasts. Even in the 5th century B.C., indeed, cockfighting had been
held on one day of the year in the Dionysiac theatre, -a custom which legend
connected with an omen seen by Themistocles in the Persian wars: but this -unlike
the later innovations- was consistent with the religio loci, since the cult
of Asclepius had points of contact with that of Dionysus. Thus the proagon of
the Dionysia (noticed above) was held on the day, and near the place, of the
sacrifice to Asclepius.
Mention has been made of the meetings for public business held in
the Dionysiac theatre just before and after the Great Dionysia. In the latter
part of the 5th century we hear of [p. 820] the citizens convening the ecclesia
in the theatre at Munychia, and in the Dionysiac theatre itself, when, under
the Four Hundred, the Pnyx was not available (Thuc. viii. 93 f.). By 250 B.C.
it had become usual to hold ordinary meetings of the ecclesia in the Dionysiac
theatre; though the elections of magistrates (archairesiai) continued to be
held on the Pnyx. From the 5th century B.C. the theatre had been the regular
place for the bestowal of public honours, such as crowns. In later times a theatre
was often also the scene of an exemplary punishment. One of the earliest instances
is the execution of Hippo in the theatre at Messana, of which place he had been
tyrant (circ. 338 B.C.; Plut. Timol. 34). Sepulchral inscriptions, of the Roman
age -sometimes commemorating Christians- have been found both in the Dionysiac
theatre and in the Odeum of Herodes Atticus; whence it has been conjectured
that, in late times, burials occasionally took place within those precincts.
As statues of Themistocles and Miltiades stood in the Dionysiac theatre, so,
at every period of Greek antiquity, such places were adorned with monuments
of statesmen and soldiers, no less than of poets, musicians, and actors. This
was in accord with the true idea of the Greek theatre, which was not merely
the home of an art, but also a centre of civic reunion.
THE ROMAN THEATRE.
Rome possessed no theatre of stone till 55 B.C. Just a century earlier
such an edifice had been in progress, when P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica procured
a decree of the senate for its destruction (Liv. Epit. 48). The spirit of the
Roman veto on permanent theatres was one which refused to regard the drama except
as a passing frivolity. Wooden theatres were erected, and pulled down when the
occasion was over. But before the middle of the 1st century B.C. these temporary
structures had already begun to show a high elaboration. The building put up
by the aedile M. Aemilius Scaurus in 58 B.C. contained 80,000 seats; the proscenium
was adorned with pillars of marble and statues of bronze; and the whole work
seems to have possessed every element of grandeur except permanence. The old
interdict had already lost its meaning; and three years later Pompeius was allowed
to erect, near the Campus Martins, the first theatre of stone. The model is
said to have been the theatre of Mitylene, and the number of seats 40,000. The
theatre of Marcellus, built by Augustus, and named after his nephew, was also
of stone, and could hold 20,500 persons. A third such building, with a capacity
of 11,510, was completed in 13 B.C. by L. Cornelius Balbus. These are the trina
theatra of Suetonius (Aug. 45). Meanwhile many provincial towns in Italy and
elsewhere had long possessed stone theatres, built or altered under Roman influence.
The Roman type of theatre is simply the Greek type modified in certain
particulars. The ground-plan is thus described by Vitruvius (see image inside
URL below). In a circle, of the same diameter which the orchestra is to have,
inscribe three equilateral triangles. Take one side of any triangle, and let
this be the back wall of the stage, scaenae frons (A B). A diameter of the circle,
drawn parallel with A B, will represent the line dividing the stage from the
orchestra (C D). The seats for the spectators are arranged round the orchestra
in semicircles concentric with it. The five points above the line C D, where
the angles touch the circumference, are the points from which five flights of
steps lead up to the seats, dividing them into six cunei. Above the first zone,
or semicircular passage (praecinctio), the seats are divided into twelve cunei
by eleven stairways. Just above the points C and D, access is given to the orchestra
by two vaulted passages which pass under the upper rows of seats (E, F). The
platform of the stage is prolonged right and left, so that its total length
(G H) is equal to twice the diameter of the orchestra. In the back wall of the
stage there are to be three doors, the positions of which are marked by the
points I, K, L. Thus the distinctive features of the Roman theatre are these
two:
(1) The orchestra is not, as in the Greek theatre, a circle (or the greater
part of it), but only a semicircle. The diameter of the orchestra is now the
front line of a raised stage. Consequently the auditorium, also, forms only
a half-circle. The primary cause of this change was that the old Dionysiac chorus
had disappeared; the orchestra, therefore, had no longer a dramatic use.
(2) In the Greek theatre the auditorium and the scene-buildings were not architecturally
linked. The parodoi were open passages between them. In the Roman theatre the
side-walls of the scene-building were carried forward till they met the side-walls
of the auditorium. By this organic union of the two main parts the whole theatre
was made a single compact building.
These two main differences explain the other points in which the
Roman theatre varied from its Greek original. Thus:
(i.) Having closed the openings afforded by the parodoi, the Romans needed some
other access to their semicircular orchestra. Here the arch served them. By
cutting off a few seats in the lower rows at the angles right and left of the
stage, they obtained height enough for vaulted passages, which ran under the
auditorium into the orchestra.
(ii.) The solid unity of the Roman theatres lent itself to the Roman taste for
decoration of a monumental character. The permanent Greek proscenia, though
usually adorned with columns, had been simple. But the richest embellishments
of architecture and sculpture were lavished on the Roman proscenia, in which
two or more stories were usually distinguished by carefully harmonised modes
of treatment.
(iii.) A similar magnificence was shown in the external facades. Greek theatres
had usually been erected on natural slopes. A Roman theatre was more often built
on level ground. The auditorium rested on massive substructions, of which the
walls were connected by arches. From the open spaces thus afforded, numerous
wide staircases ascended, beneath the auditorium, to the several rows of seats.
Corridors, opening on these staircases, ran along the inner side of the semicircular
wall which enclosed the auditorium. The exterior of this wall was adorned with
columns, having arcades between them, and rising in three or more successive
stories, divided by architrave and cornice. Thus, while the architectural significance
of a Greek theatre depended wholly on the interior, a Roman theatre had also
the external aspect of a stately public building.
With regard to the internal arrangements of the Roman theatre, the
following points claim notice.
(1) The raised stage (pulpitum, logeion) is in some instances on a level with
the lowest row of seats behind the orchestra, as at Aizani in Cilicia and Aspendus
in Pamphylia. Sometimes, again, the stage is rather higher, but the (originally)
lowest tow of seats has been abolished, leaving the stage still level with those
seats which are actually lowest: this is the case at Pergamnum and Assus. In
a third class of examples, the stage is higher than the lowest row of seats,--as
it is at Orange. The Roman stage in the Dionysiac theatre at Athens is of this
class.
(2) Awnings were spread over the theatre to protect the spectators from sun
or rain.: These were usually called vela: the term velaria occurs only in Juv.
iv. 122. Pliny, who describes them as carbasina vela (made of linen), says that
they were introduced by Q. Catulus, in 78 B.C. (xix. 23). They were supported
by masts (mali), fixed to the outer walls of the theatre by massive rings or
sockets, which can still be seen at Orange or Pompeii. Between the masts were
cross-beams (trabes), for greater convenience in unfurling the vela. Such awnings
were of various colours, as yellow, red, darkblue (Lucr. iv. 75 ff., where see
Munro).
(3) Until the play began, the stage was concealed by a curtain; which was then
lowered. The place into which it sank, just inside of the front line of the
stage, can be seen in the larger theatre at Pompeii. At the end of the piece
the curtain was drawn up. Hence, where we say, the curtain rises, the Romans
said, aulaeum mittitur or subducitur: the curtain is up, aulaeum premitur: the
curtain falls, aulaeum tollitur. The word siparium (from the rt. of sipharos,
top-sail, supparum) meant a folding screen. Apuleius (150 A.D.) describes a
kind of, ballet as beginning when the curtain had been lowered, and the screens
folded up (sipariis complicitis, Met. 10, p. 232; cp. ib. 1, p. 7). If these
screens were within the curtain, the reason for using them along with it may
have been to heighten the effect of a tableau by disclosing it gradually. In
the later parts of the piece, they may have served to conceal sceneshifting.
Another use is also possible. Theatres of the Macedonian and Roman period sometimes
had two stages, the higher being used by the regular actors, the lower by mimes
or dancers; and the latter may have been concealed by the siparium, as the other
by the aulaeum.,The word siparium is regularly associated with comedy or mimes.
(Seneca, de tranq. An. c. 11, 8; Juv. Sat. 8, 186.)
(4) Allocation of seats. The orchestra was reserved for senators. As a special
mark of distinction, foreigners (usually ambassadors) were occasionally admitted
to it (see Tac. Ann. xiii. 54). The rest of the auditorium was called cavea.
The Lex Roscia, proposed by the tribune L. Roscius Otho in 67 B.C., provided
that the fourteen rows of seats in the cavea nearest to the orchestra should
be reserved for the equites--excluding any who should have become bankrupt (Cic.
Phil. ii. 44). Owing to the large number of equites who had been ruined by the
civil wars, Augustus decreed that the privilege given by the Lex Roscia should
be enjoyed by any eques who had at any time possessed, or whose father had possessed,
the amount of the equester census, viz. 400,000 sesterces (Suet. Aug. 40). This
is probably the Lex Julia Theatralis meant by Pliny (xxxiii. 8). Augustus farther
assigned special portions of the cavea to (1) women; (2) praetextati, i.e. boys
who had not yet assumed the toga virilis, and their paedagogi; (3) soldiers;
(4) married men belonging to the plebs. This was a premium on marriage, like
others provided in the Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. In some provincial theatres
the town-councillors (decuriones) had seats of honour (bisellia) on the rows
next the orchestra. Corresponding to the royal box in a modern theatre was the
tribunal, immediately over the stage on the spectator's left. This was occupied
by the emperor, or by the president of the performance. A corresponding responding
tribunal on the left side was assigned to the Vestals, among whom the empress
sat. Thus, from the Augustan age onwards, the contrast between a Greek and Roman
theatre was extended to the arrangements for the audience. Instead of the simple
Greek distinction between those who had or had not proedria, the Roman auditorium
exhibited an elaborate classification by sex, age, profession, and rank.
Odeum.
The term oideion, denoting a species of theatre appropriated to
musical performances, occurs first in a fragment of the comic poet Cratinus
(circ. 450 B.C.), with reference to the Odeum of Pericles (Thraittai, fr. 1);
but it may have been in use from a much earlier time. The oldest recorded example
is the Skias at Sparta, which is said to have been round, and to have been named
from the resemblance of its top to a sunshade (skias or skiadeion: Etym. Magn.).
It was said to have been built by the architect Theodorus of Samos (circ. 600
B.C.). On its walls the Spartans hung up the cithara of the famous musician,
Timotheus of Rhodes (circ. 400 B.C.),--not as an honour, but as a stigma, because
he had marred the ancient simplicity of the instrument by increasing the number
of its strings. In the latter part of the 2nd century A.D. the Skias was still
used as a place for public assemblies (Paus. iii. 12, 10). No traces of it remain.
The circular brick building of which ruins still exist near the Eurotas seems
to have been originally an Odeum, modified perhaps, with a view to other than
musical performances, in the Roman age of Sparta.
Athens possessed three oideia:
(1) The oldest of these stood near the fountain Enneacrunus by the Ilissus.
Its origin is uncertain, but has been conjecturally referred to Peisistratus,
or even to Solon. The most probable inference from the notices concerning it
is that it was a semicircular building, arranged on the general plan of a Greek
theatre, but with a roof. It was in this Odeum that the proagon was held before
the Great Dionysia, as described above. This, too, is the Odeum to which Aristophanes
refers as being used for a law-court (Vesp. 1109); the scholiast on that passage
identifies the place with the scene of the proagon. The same building must be
understood when we read of the Odeum as a rendezvous or a lodging for troops
(Xen. Hellen. ii. 4, 9, 24), and as place for the distribution of corn (Dem.
c. Phorm. 37: [Dem.] in Neaer. 52). It appears to have been restored, or built
anew, by Lycurgus (circ. 330 B.C.); for the words of Hypereides (fr. 32, oikodomese
de to theatron, to oideion) cannot well refer to the Periclean building,--then
little more than a century old.
(2) The Odeum of Pericles stood a little S.E. of the Acropolis and N.E. of the
Dionysiac theatre: modern houses cover its probable site. Plutarch preserves
a tradition that the shape of the building was intended to recall the tent of
Xerxes (Per. 13). The fact that the top rose to a peak--like that of the Spartan
Skias, as we may suppose--apparently prompted the joke of Cratinus, when he
described Pericles, the Zeus with peaked head (schinokephalos), as toideion
epi tou kraniou echon (Thraitt. 1). These notices at least prove that the form
was round, and such as to suggest a tent. In the conception of Pericles, the
new Odeum, like the new temple of Athena, was associated with the Great Panathenaea.
As the final act of the festival was celebrated in the Parthenon, so the Odeum
was the place for the performances with which the festival began,--contests
of flute-players, singers, and rhapsodes. The Odeum of Pericles was completed
about 444 B.C. It was burnt down in 86 B.C. by Aristion, the tyrant of Athens,
when he fled before Sulla to the Acropolis. The restoration of the building
by Ariobarzanes II. (Philopator), king of Cappadocia, about 60 B.C., is the
last recorded incident in its history. It is remarkable that Pausanias speaks
as if, at the time of his visit (circ. 155 A.D.), the old Odeum by the Ilissus
was the principal building of its kind in Athens (i. 14,1). He refers to the
Odeum of Pericles merely as a structure (kataskeuasma) said to have been built
in imitation of the tent of Xerxes, and does not even name its founder (i. 20,4).
(3) The third Odeum at Athens was built by the eminent rhetorician Herodes Atticus,
in memory of his second wife, Appia Annia Regilla, who died before 161 A.D.
It had not been commenced when Pausanias described Athens; but he mentions it
in speaking of the Odeum at Patrae, which was, he says, second only to that
of Herodes (vii. 20,6). The Odeum of Herodes stood on the south slope of the
Acropolis, W. of the Dionysiac theatre. Considerable remains still exist. It
was not a round building, but a theatre of the ordinary Roman type, with a roof
superadded. Hence Philostratus describes it as to epi Rhegillei theatron (Vit.
Soph. ii. 1, 5, cf. 8), and Suidas (s. v. Herodes) as theatron huporophion,--the
Latin theatrum tectum. It was distinguished by the great splendour of the internal
decoration. The ceiling was of cedar,--with probably an open space for light
in the middle. The seats in the cavea were cased with marble, and divided into
an upper and lower zone by a diazoma. The floor of the orchestra was inlaid
with marble mosaic-work. The proscenium, which had three doors, was decorated
with columnar arcades, in four successive storeys, and with statuary. A similar
mode of decoration, though less elaborate, was applied to the external facade.
Behind the proscenium spacious accommodation was provided for the performers.
Philostratus mentions a smaller theatre in the Cerameicus at Athens, called,
after its founder, the Agrippeion, which seems to have been used for rhetorical
declamations rather than for music or drama (Vit. Soph. ii. 5, 3 and 8, 2).
The building of Pericles and that of Herodes Atticus illustrate
the twofold relation of the ancient Odeum to the ancient theatre. (1) The circular
Odeum, such as that of Pericles, was the place for music or recitation, as the
Greek theatre for drama or chorus. From an artistic point of view, it was the
supplement of the Greek theatre. (2) The semicircular Odeum, such as that of
Herodes, was merely a roofed Roman theatre; and, as such, it was used not only
for music, but for other entertainments also, such as mimes, or even regular
drama. In the Roman period the first type continued to exist along with the
second. Trajan built a round Odeum at Rome (Paus. v. 12, 4, theatron mhega kukloteres),
called oideion by Dio Cassius (lxix. 4). In many instances where an Odeum is
mentioned, the type to which it belonged remains uncertain.
In conclusion, it may be useful to enumerate some of the more important
Greek and Roman theatres of which remains exist. The following list is mainly
based on that given by Dr. A. Kawerau in Baumeister's Denkmaler. A fuller enumeration,
with references to the topographical and archaeological literature in each case,
will be found in Dr. A. Muller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalterthumer
(1886).
I. Greece Proper.
Attica.
1. The Dionysiac theatre at Athens. Excavated in 1886 by the German Archaeological
Institute.
2. Theatre at Zea in the Peiraeus. Excavated in 1880 and 1885 by the Greek Archaeological
Society. The orchestra was surrounded by a canal, like that in the Dionysiac
theatre.
3. Theatre at Oropus. Excavated in 1886 by the Greek Archaeological Society.
The proscenium, with one door, remains.
4. Theatre at Thoricus. Excavated in 1886 by the American School. Remarkable
for the irregular curve of the orchestra, which recedes more than anywhere else
from the form of a semicircle, and approaches that of a semiellipse.
Epeirus.
1. Theatre at Dramyssus. The cavea well preserved. It had two diazomata.
2. Theatre at Elatria (now Rhiniassa). A great part of the cavea remains.
Sicyonia.
Theatre at Sicyon. Excavations begun in 1887 by the American School.
Argolis.
1. Theatre at Epidaurus. Excavated in 1883 by the Greek Archaeological Society.
The best-preserved and finest example of a Greek theatre of the classical age.
It was built about 350 B.C. by the younger Polycleitus (Paus. ii. 27, 5).
2. Theatre at Argos. The central part of the cavea was hewn from the rock; sixty-seven
rows of seats remain, separated by two diazomata. The two ends of the cavea
were formed by substructions of rude masonry.
Arcadia.
1. Theatre at Mantineia. Notable as an exception to the rule that Greek theatres
were built on natural slopes. Here the cavea rested on an artificial mound supported
by polygonal walls.
2. Theatre at Megalopolis. The largest known to Pausanias (ii. 27, 5). The site
was a natural slope, but recourse was had also to an artificial embankment at
each horn of the auditorium. Excavations begun here in 1889 by members of the
British School at Athens have disclosed the stage and the lowest portion of
the seats.
II, Islands of the Aegean Sea
The older theatre at Delos is that in which the segment of a circle formed by
the curve of the cavea most largely exceeds a semicircle. The Cretan theatres
at Gortyna, Hierapytna, and Lyctus are among those which have the niches intended,
as some have supposed, for echeia (see above).
III. Asia Minor
Among the theatres of the later Greek or Hellenistic age, those at the following
places show a peculiarity in the curve of the cavea like that noted above at
Delos: Side (Pamphylia), Myra (Lycia), Telmissus (do.), Iassus (Caria), Aizani
(Cilicia). The last-named theatre affords another example of the niches mentioned
above. Other interesting theatres of the same period are those of Pergamum (excavated
in 1885 by the German Expedition) and Assus (excavated in 1883, for the American
Archaeol. Institute, by Mr. J. P. Clarke). The Roman theatre at Aspendus (Pamphylia)
is the best-preserved ancient theatre in existence. The proscenium has five
doors.
IV. Italy
1. The two theatres at Pompeii. The larger shows a peculiarity in the four lowest
rows of seats, which are separated from those above, and appear to have been
the places of honour. The stage is also of interest. The smaller theatre was
roofed.
2. Theatre at Falerii. One of the best preserved. It was finished in 43 B.C.
V. Sicily
Theatres at Syracuse, Acrae, Catana, Tauromenion, Tyndaris, and Segesta. The
general characteristic of the Sicilian theatres is that they were founded in
Greek times and afterwards modified, or reconstructed, under Roman influences.
VI. France.
The Roman theatre at Orange (Arausio) is well preserved. The reconstruction
of it by A. Caristie (Monuments antiques a Orange, Paris, 1856) conveys a probably
just idea of its original beauty. In one respect it forms an exception to the
ordinary Roman rule; for use was made of a natural slope to support the cavea.
This text is from: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890) (eds. William Smith, LLD, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin). Cited June 2005 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains interesting hyperlinks
Site: Epidauros
Type: Stoa
Summary: Two part stoa; forming part of northwest boundary of the
central Sanctuary of Asklepios, north of the Temple of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 400 B.C. - 350 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
Two part stoa. Earlier eastern section was a two-aisled stoa opening south with
Ionic inner and outer colonnades. The later, western extension was two-storied;
the lower level reached by an outside staircase to a court on its southern side.
The extended stoa had 29 Ionic columns on the southern face and 13 inner columns.
Octagonal pillars in the lower level. The lower floor of the western extension
was enclosed by a wall with doors and decorated with Doric pilasters. A stone
balustrade filled the openings between the Ionic columns of the upper level. There
were probably wooden dividers between the inner columns of both stoas.
History:
Also known as the Enkoimeterion, the stoa was used as a dormitory for those awaiting
Asklepios' advice. The later two-storied western extension was probably Roman.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Rectangular building; attached to the north side of the
Roman House, to the east outside the Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 350 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
On the west a pronaos of 4 Doric columns in antis (3 openings) led to an open
court.
History:
Previously identified as a Roman temple to the Egyptian Asklepios and Apollo (mentioned
by Pausanias), this sanctuary is now believed to have been dedicated to the Dioskouroi
(the twins Castor and Pollux).
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Site: Epidauros
Summary: Two rectangular buildings; on the southern side of the
Sanctuary of Asklepios, southeast of the Tholos.
Date: ca. 480 B.C. - 338 B.C.
Period: Classical
Plan:
Two small, adjoining rectangular buildings. The western building a single room.
The larger, eastern building divided into a large inner room and a smaller entrance.
A connecting structure of 3 parallel walls formed 2 small square areas.
History:
The buildings have not been positively identified, but may have served as storage
or residences. A later Roman wall was built over the structures.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Baths
Summary: Rectangular buildings; east of the Abaton (Dormitory) and
north of the Temple of Asklepios, in the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 500 B.C. - 400 B.C.
Period: Archaic/Classical
Plan:
Two simple, rectangular buildings; the western one divided into 2 parts.
History:
Possibly the 1st baths in the sanctuary, the baths may have had religious and
curative uses. The water came from the sacred well of Asklepios southwest of the
Baths. A later Roman wall was built over the remains.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Fountainhouse Summary: Small prostyle building; on the eastern
edge of the Sanctuary of Asklepios, between the Northeast Stoa and the Anakeion.
Date: ca. 250 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Small rectangular tetrastyle prostyle building opening south with a gathering
basin on its northern side and draw basin on the southern side.
History:
Rebuilt in the 2nd century A.D.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Fountainhouse
Summary: Fountainhouse with a circular niche; west of the Roman
cistern, in the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: Unknown
Plan:
Rectangular room on north, opening north, with 3 rooms leading off. On the southern
side were a nearly circular room, perhaps with a fountain, and a nearly rectangular
room. On the east a small rectangular room.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Baths
Summary: Rectangular building; south of the central Sanctuary of
Asklepios and of the Gymnasium.
Date: ca. 300 B.C. - 280 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Many rooms with bathtubs and basins.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Gymnasium
Summary: Courtyard surrounded by stoas and rooms; south of the central
Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 280 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
In the center was a square peristyle court with 16 columns to a side. Behind the
northern side of the peristyle was an interior colonnade of 20 columns, and beyond
this a long, narrow hall, an ephebeum or exercise room, with a small rectangular
exedra (probably a shrine) in its rear wall. Behind the southern side of the peristyle
was a wall with doors leading into a long room (probably a dining room) with a
central colonnade and 2 rooms at each end. Behind the eastern and western walls
of the peristyle were various rooms, the largest on each side having a central
colonnade with the one on the east probably serving as a dining hall. An enormous,
later propylon on the northern side was the main entrance, with 2 smaller entrances
on the eastern side.
History:
Dinsmoor refers to this building as the Palaestra. In Roman times an Odeion was
built over the ruins of the Gymnasium.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Guest House Summary: Large square building with courts; northwest
of the Theater, about midway between the Theater and the central Sanctuary of
Asklepios.
Date: ca. 320 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Four square peristyle courts with 10 Doric columns to a side. The two-storied
Doric peristyles formed portico entrances to the surrounding 160 rooms. Around
each courtyard ran a channel for water.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Stoa
Summary: Group of narrow buildings forming the northeast corner
of the Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 325 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A narrow court surrounded by colonnades and rooms on all but the eastern side.
History:
Coulton tentatively identifies this as the Stoa of Kotys. His reconstruction includes
a two-aisled portico, Doric outer colonnade and Ionic inner colonnade, on the
south and west sides. Colonnade on the north side may have been of wood. The area
immediately south of this complex is lined with dedications.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Odeion Summary: Small, roofed theater; built on the ruins
of the Gymnasium, south of the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: Unknown
Period: Roman
Plan:
Walled, roofed theater with cavea facing west and a two-storied stage building.
Mosaic paved orchestra less than a complete semi-circle.
History:
Built on the ruins of the earlier Gymnasium, the northeast corner of the Odeion
and the northwest corner of its stage were the same as those corners on the peristyle
court from the earlier building.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Square building with court; in the Sanctuary of Asklepios,
southeast of the Temple of Asklepios.
Date: Unknown
Plan:
Rooms around a court. Extant various interior walls from later uses.
History:
Originally this area may have been sacred to Apollo, whose altar stands to the
west. Later, when the area was sacred to Asklepios, the open area was surrounded
on 3 sides by rooms, perhaps serving as dormitories. Many dedications surround
the building, and it forms a boundary to the open air sanctuary to Asklepios that
occupies the southeastern corner of the Sanctuary of Asklepios. Parts of the building
were rebuilt and in use during the Roman period.
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Site: Epidauros
Type: Palaestra
Summary: Large rectangular building; just outside the southern perimeter
of the central Sanctuary of Asklepios, east of the Temple of Artemis.
Date: Unknown
Plan:
Small porch entrance on western side led through a short passage to a rectangular
room with 4 pillars and 4 half-columns dividing the area into 3 aisles. There
was a narrow hall with 4 columns on the north side and many smaller rooms around
the other sides. A 2nd passage and entrance opened on the south.
History:
Misidentified as the Stoa of Kotys. Kavvadias considered this building a palaestra
with an open court, constructed in Classical times. Roux suggests that the building
was built by Antoninus and used by a religious group. Roux believes that the central
court had an opaion roof, and a circular bath area at the south side of the building.
The stone tables and benches on the north side of the central room were brought
from elsewhere.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Palaestra
Summary: Complex of buildings; southwest of the central Sanctuary
of Asklepios, north of the stadium.
Date: Unknown
Plan:
Large courtyard with colonnade facing south toward the stadium and entered by
a passage on that side. Various other rooms. An entrance also on the north side.
History:
Function uncertain, may have housed athletes or been a palaestra.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Gate
Summary: Gate building; located on the northwest, outside the central
Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 350 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
Hexastyle, prostyle Ionic colonnades at north and south ends of the rectangular
platform. Between the walls on the eastern and western sides was a 4 x 5 inner
colonnade of Corinthian columns. The Propylon was approached on both ends by ramps.
History:
Before the 4th century A.D. the Sanctuary of Asklepios was not enclosed by a peribolos
wall, thereafter the Sacred Way passed through this Propylon which marked the
entrance to the sanctuary.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 22 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: House
Summary: House; adjoined the Anakeion, just outside the east wall
of the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: Unknown
Period: Roman
Plan:
Colonnaded larger courtyard with a well and surrounded by rooms. Smaller courtyard
to the east surrounded by rooms. North wall shared with Anakeion.
History:
May have been a priests' house or a place for important guests to stay.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Fountainhouse Summary: Narrow rectangular building; on the
eastern edge of the Sanctuary of Asklepios, between the Northeast Stoa and the
Anakeion, west of the Doric Fountainhouse.
Date: Unknown
Plan:
Narrow building entered from the west by a courtyard leading to a vaulted chamber
has a draw basin at its eastern wall. Storage cistern in rear wall.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: House
Summary: Building with a courtyard; south and east of the Stoa of
Apollo Maleatas, in the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: Unknown
Period: Roman
Plan:
Complex of several rooms, most of them nearly rectangular.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Cistern
Summary: Large oblong cistern; located southwest of the Priests'
House, in the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: Unknown
Period: Roman
Plan:
Rectangular shape.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Stadium
Summary: Rectangular area; southwest of the Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 480 B.C. - 338 B.C.
Period: Classical
Plan:
Rectangular area with starting line on the west and finishing line on the east
surrounded by water channel with settling basins. Stone seats on the north and
south sides.
History:
Earth banks were built up to supplement the slopes of a natural ravine, and to
create the original seating. The stone seats and staircases were added during
Hellenistic and Roman times. A paved platform on southern slope could have been
for victors or to seat honored guests, with a possible judges' bench opposite
the finishing line. A Hellenistic vaulted passageway under seats led to a possible
Palaestra to the north. Small stone pillars marked the stadium into 6 equal parts
and Hellenistic lane markers were later added to the finishing and starting lines.
Contests held in the stadium included: running events, broad jumping, discus,
javelin, wrestling, boxing and pankration (a type of wrestling in which striking
was allowed). Performances may have been held here before the Theater was built.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Stoa
Summary: Stoa; on the north side of the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: ca. 280 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
One-aisled stoa with colonnade of Doric attached half-columns facing south. Stone
screens in the intercolumniations. Massive back wall was a retaining wall.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 2 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Small prostyle temple; east of the central Sanctuary of
Asklepios, west of the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: ca. 320 B.C. - 280 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
Ionic prostyle temple with pseudo-peripteral cella, 4 x 7 columns. All but 6 outer
columns were attached to the cella walls. A ramp on the east led over 4 steps
to a tetrastyle prostyle porch of 6 columns and the cella. The interior of the
cella was lined with Corinthian columns which nearly touched the walls.
History:
An excavated statue of Aphrodite with a sword (attributed to Polykleitos the Younger,
2nd century B.C.) may have stood near this temple.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Temple; southwest of the Stoa of Apollo Maleatas, in the
Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas.
Date: ca. 350 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
Small cella opening east onto a pronaos, distyle in antis. Adyton at the west
end of the cella and a ramp on the east.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 2 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Prostyle temple; southeast of the Temple Asklepios on the
edge of the Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 330 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A cella opening east onto a hexastyle prostyle pronaos of Doric columns. Ten Corinthian
columns lined the cella interior on 3 sides. A ramp and paved area on the east
connected the temple to an altar.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Peripteral temple; northeast of the Tholos, in the Sanctuary
of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 380 B.C. - 375 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
Small Doric peripteral temple, 6 x 11 columns, with a cella opening east onto
a pronaos, distyle in antis. Inside the cella was a colonnade of unknown order
with 4 columns at the rear and 7 along the sides. A ramp on the east led into
the pronaos. A paved area led east from the ramp to the Altar of Asklepios. The
altar south of this building is an Altar of Apollo.
History:
Alternative reconstructions of this building show no interior colonnade. It was
dedicated to Asklepios and designed by the architect Theodotos. The temple displaced
an earlier Temple of Asklepios farther southeast in the sanctuary.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Temple
Summary: Prostyle temple; southwest of the Propylon, between the
Propylon and the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 320 B.C.
Period: Hellenistic
Plan:
A cella opening east onto a tetrastyle prostyle pronaos. Inner colonnade of Corinthian
columns on 3 walls. Ramp on east led up to the pronaos over a three-stepped platform.
History:
Alternative reconstructions show the pronaos distyle in antis.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Theater
Summary: Theater; located southeast of the Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 350 B.C. - 300 B.C.
Period: Late Clas./Hell.
Plan:
Cavea, orchestra and skene. A round orchestra defined by a low curb with an altar
stone in the center. A paved depression between the orchestra and the cavea was
a used as an ambulatory. The cavea of 55 rows of seats was divided vertically
by 13 staircases reached through the doors at either end of the scene building.
The diazoma divided the cavea into 21 upper, steeper rows of seats and 34 lower
rows. The lowest row of seats had back supports and was reserved for honored guests.
The scene building, which may have been added later in the Hellenistic period,
was two-storied. On its southeastern side, facing the cavea, was a one-storied
stage. The stage rested on 14 pillars with engaged Ionic half-columns. Between
all but the 2 central pillars were painted wooden panels used as a back drop during
performances. There were slightly projecting wings and a ramp at each end of the
stage. At the far end of each ramp, and almost perpendicular to it, were gateways,
each with 2 doors, one leading through the parodos to the orchestra and one leading
to the ramp. The lower story of the scene had 10 pillars along its northwestern
front and four along its central axis. At either end were two square rooms. The
upper story also had two square rooms at each end, but no central pillars.
History:
Designed by Polykleitos the Younger, in the 4th century B.C., the seats were wide
enough to allow those sitting in the upper rows to rest their feet on the lower
seats without touching the persons below. Originally seating 6,210, the expansion
of 21 rows above the diazoma allowed the theater to accommodate about 14,000.
The best preserved theater in Greece, with unparalleled acoustics. Modern performances
are held here.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Tholos
Summary: Circular building; southwest of the Temple of Asklepios,
in the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: ca. 360 B.C. - 320 B.C.
Period: Late Classical
Plan:
Circular building with outer colonnade of 26 Doric columns and inner colonnade
of 14 Corinthian columns. Leading to the east entrance, which had windows at either
side, was a ramp over the three-stepped platform. Beneath the floor of the Tholos
was a labyrinth reached by a hole in the center of the floor.
History:
Also known as the Thymele, the activities of the cult of the Hero Asklepios took
place here, and the labyrinth below may have housed sacred snakes. Pausanias wrote
that Polykleitos the Younger was the architect. The building had elaborately carved
architectural elements and fine paving of black and white limestone. Dinsmoor
states that the paving was marble.
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Site: Epidauros
Type: Reservoir
Summary: Rectangular structure; west of the Temple of Themis, outside
the central Sanctuary of Asklepios.
Date: Unknown
This text is cited Jan 2003 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 1 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
Region: Argolid
Periods: Dark Age, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman
Type: Sanctuary
Summary: Sanctuary of Apollo and Asklepios and an Asklepieion or
healing center.
Physical Description:
On the E coast of the Argolid, the health spa and religious
center at Epidauros maintained a bath, hotels and dwellings for the priest-physicians
as well as a tholos building, temples, stoas, gymnasium, palaestra, stadium and
a theater. The theater is one of the best preserved ancient structures in Greece
and is now used for modern presentations of ancient Greek drama. The Asklepieia
(athletic and dramatic festival) was held every 4 years. Epidauros is claimed
as the birthplace of Asklepios and it was the most celebrated center of his cult.
Description:
Traditionally the region of Epidauros is said to have first
been inhabited by the Carians. There existed, in Archaic or earlier times, a cult
of Malos in the region, but the establishment of a sanctuary to Apollo and Asklepios
is not older than the 6th century B.C. It appears that the sanctuary was first
dedicated to Apollo and that only in the 5th century B.C. did Apollo's son Asklepios
gain prominence. At the end of the 5th century B.C. and throughout the 4th century
the Asklepieion grew in fame and influence. Every 4 years (9 days after the Isthmian
Games) the Panhellenic Asklepieia Games were held. At ca. 380 B.C. poetry and
music contests were added to the competition. During the 4th century the cult
of Asklepios spread throughout the Greek world. Epidauros was claimed as the birthplace
of Asklepios and more than 200 new Asklepieia were built (most notably at Athens,
Kos, and Pergamon). Also at this time the previously unadorned sanctuary at Epidauros
was filled with votive offerings and monuments. Fame and prosperity continued
throughout the Hellenistic period. In 87 B.C. the sanctuary at Epidauros was looted
by Sulla and in 67 B.C. it was plundered by pirates. In the 2nd century A.D. the
sanctuary enjoyed a new upsurge under the Romans and the worship of new gods from
the East was introduced into the sanctuary. In 395 A.D. the Goths raided the sanctuary.
Although the cults of the ancient gods died out under Christianity, the sanctuary
at Epidauros was known as late as the mid 5th century A.D. as a Christian healing
center.
Exploration:
Excavations: P. Kavvadias and V. Stais of the Greek Archaeological
Society began in 1881, the French School of Archaeology for a short time just
after W.W. II, and J. Papadimitriou in 1948-51.
Donald R. Keller, ed.
This text is cited Oct 2002 from The Perseus Project URL below, which contains 34 image(s), bibliography & interesting hyperlinks.
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